Execution and Design of Maps
Chapter ji 1: The Science of Maps
Concept and Importance of Cartography:
Cartography is a modern science distinct from geography, focused on collecting, analyzing, and representing Earth's information graphically at a suitable scale.
Maps serve as a universal means of communication, transcending linguistic barriers through lines, symbols, and colors.
A cartographer is both a scientist and an artist, requiring comprehensive knowledge of the Earth and the ability to highlight relevant features based on the map's purpose and scale.
Cartography requires artistic skills for selecting appropriate symbols, lines, shapes, and colors to represent features effectively.
A geographer described the cartographer as 40% geographer, 40% artist, 40% mathematician and 40% everything else.
While geographers utilize maps extensively, professionals from various fields such as engineering, geology, economics, politics, and military also rely on maps for their respective studies and operations.
Maps offer a simplified representation of the Earth's surface, annotated with symbols and labels for clarity.
Maps share similarities with aerial photographs but differ significantly:
Maps depict known information about the represented area, whereas photographs capture what is visible.
Maps emphasize specific phenomena, while photographs display all visible features.
Maps include abstract elements such as longitude, latitude, and political boundaries, which are absent in photographs.
Maps can illustrate subsurface geological structures or astronomical data, unlike photographs.
Historical Overview of Cartography:
The history of mapping is intertwined with human development, with maps evolving alongside human civilization.
Maps are simplified representations of Earth's surface, showcasing natural and human features on a flat surface at a specific scale.
Evidence suggests that humans used maps before developing writing systems, initially drawing geographic features like mountains and rivers on cave walls.
With the advent of writing, maps were inscribed on clay tablets, wood, animal skins, and papyrus for easier transport and preservation.
Ancient civilizations in the river valleys of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China were instrumental in creating the first maps based on measurement and direction.
Maps in Mesopotamia:
The ancient inhabitants of Mesopotamia possessed geographical knowledge and developed a rudimentary understanding of regional geography.
They conceived the cosmos with their land at the center, considering its location relative to other countries.
The advanced irrigation systems of Sumerian civilization led to the creation of maps detailing agricultural land ownership and field divisions, including water channels, roads, and settlements.
City plans, topographical maps, and agricultural maps illustrating village locations, irrigation canals, rivers, and farmlands were also prevalent.
The Babylonian World Map, one of the oldest known maps, dates back to the 6th century BC and is inscribed on a clay tablet. It depicts Sargon of Akkad's campaign in Asia.
The map portrays the Earth as a circle surrounded by the celestial ocean, with the Euphrates River flowing from north to south, bisecting the circle. The city of Babylon is depicted as a rectangle bisected by the river.
Other landmarks include the land of Ashur, mountains to the north that balance the Earth, and triangles outside the celestial ocean representing distances in Babylonian hours.
Planned city maps, akin to modern urban design maps, were also developed, although physical examples on clay tablets are scarce.
Archaeological findings suggest that cities were planned with intentional designs, featuring organized layouts, central temples and palaces, straight, perpendicular streets, and regularly angled outer walls.
These features indicate advanced urban planning and design in ancient Mesopotamian cities.
Maps Among Arabs Before and After Islam:
During the Middle Ages, Arabs significantly contributed to the advancement of cartography, drawing inspiration from the Greeks.
There is limited evidence of Arab contributions to cartography before Islam, attributed to the simple geographic environment of the Arabian Peninsula and its isolation from ancient civilizations due to vast deserts.
Factors driving the development of cartography among Arabs include:
The Islamic administrative system's need to collect taxes and information on regions, populations, crops, and industries.
The central administration's requirement to establish new roads with detailed descriptions and distances.
The expansion of the caliphate and the establishment of safety and security, fostering trade by land and sea.
The religious duty of Hajj, encouraging travel to Mecca.
The Islamic encouragement of learning, prompting travel for knowledge.
The need to determine prayer times and the beginning of fasting, necessitating astronomical and mathematical studies.
The patronage of caliphs towards science and scholars, particularly in translating Greek geographical texts.
The first known map in the Arab world was commissioned by Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi, depicting the region conquered by Qutaiba ibn Muslim al-Bahili.
Arabs improved mapmaking by calculating latitude and longitude, creating location tables called "Zijat," initiated by Al-Fazari and later advanced by Al-Khwarizmi.
This led to maps based on longitude and latitude, using the Greek meridian at the westernmost African coast.
Other notable maps include the Mamun map, created during Al-Mamun's reign, representing the entire known world according to Greek principles and Zijat tables.
Additionally, a map of the Nile Valley and Egypt was included in Al-Khwarizmi's "Description of the Earth."
Ancient Arab maps differ from modern maps: Arabs placed north at the bottom, south at the top, east to the left, and west to the right. Current maps are inversions made by modern researchers.
The aforementioned developments mark the initial phase of Arab cartography.
The second phase, known as the "Atlas of Islam," occurred in the 4th century AH (10th century AD), focusing on detailed descriptions of Islamic lands accompanied by numerous maps.
These maps were independent and could not be combined into a general map, lacking longitude and latitude lines but depicting geographic features geometrically.
Mecca was typically positioned at the center of a circular world map. The Atlas of Islam contained 24 maps, created by geographers such as Al-Balkhi, Al-Istakhri, Ibn Hawqal, and Al-Muqaddasi.
Al-Idrisi's map represents the third phase, featuring engravings on a large silver disc depicting seven climatic regions. He also authored a book describing these regions, their inhabitants, customs, and languages, titled "Nuzhat al-Mushtaq fi Ikhtiraq al-Afaq."
This book contained 70 maps, including a circular world map, notable for its precision and detail compared to the Atlas of Islam maps, although it lacked longitude and latitude lines and had some inaccuracies in distances and angles.
Concept of Aerial Imagery:
Aerial imagery falls under remote sensing, which involves gathering information and measurements of objects and phenomena without physical contact.
Aerial images are captured within the visible light spectrum (0.4-0.9 micrometers) under clear weather conditions and during specific timeframes after sunrise or before sunset.
Satellite technology has greatly advanced aerial imaging, enabling successful contributions to space projects, such as the retrieval of the MIRKA capsule and the development of the CHAMP satellite.
The GRACE project aims to study Earth's gravitational field, alongside the creation of space probes for monitoring satellite orbits.
Evolution of Aerial Images:
The use of aerial photography dates back to the 19th century, with French scientist Luassedate demonstrating its potential for mapmaking in 1851.
In 1859, the first reflecting stereoscope was invented, followed by the first lens device in 1858.
The first device for creating maps from aerial images was developed in 1889 by Canadian scientist Deville , who mapped a mountainous region in the Rocky Mountains.
Aircraft-based aerial photography began in 1909 and saw significant development during World War I for military purposes, later expanding into civilian applications.
Aerial imagery has become essential for map creation, ranging from small-scale to detailed maps, including contour maps, city maps, and project maps.
Branches of Aerial Imaging:
Photogrammetry: The science of obtaining measurements from aerial photographs to produce accurate, large-scale maps.
Aerial Photo Interpretation: Identifying and analyzing natural and urban features on the Earth's surface through the study of aerial images.
Aerial Photography: The art of capturing aerial images using specialized cameras and correcting distortions for accurate compilation.
Aerial Navigation: Guiding aircraft along predetermined paths and directing aerial photography equipment.
Types of Aerial Images:
Vertical Photographs: Taken with the camera axis perpendicular or nearly perpendicular (less than 3 degrees of inclination) to the ground, covering a quadrilateral area and used for map preparation.
Oblique Photographs: Taken with the camera axis intentionally tilted, covering a larger area than vertical photographs and used for reconnaissance. They are further divided into:
Low Oblique Photographs: Showing the horizon and taken with a small camera angle, resulting in a trapezoidal coverage area and useful for preliminary project studies.
High Oblique Photographs: Showing the horizon and taken with a large camera angle, resulting in a trapezoidal coverage area and useful for military purposes in areas inaccessible to aircraft.
Vertical photographs are favored for aerial surveying due to uniform scale, ease of measurement, and clearer representation of features compared to oblique photographs.
Markings on Aerial Photographs:
Fiducial marks in the corners.
Photograph number.
Camera number.
Principal distance and focal length.
Clock showing the time of exposure.
Radar altimeter indicating aircraft altitude.
Leveling bubble indicating aircraft tilt.
Date of photography recorded on the first photograph of the flight line.
Tools and Materials for Map Drawing:
Drawing board and T-square.
Illuminated drafting table.
Mapping paper.
Graphite pencils and India ink.
Ruler, triangles, eraser, and protractor.
French curves and compass.
Inking pens.
Cleaning brush, adhesive tape, clips, and coloring pencils.
Map Scales:
Map scale defines the ratio between a distance on the map and the corresponding distance on the ground, varying based on the map's purpose, the area it covers, and the paper size.
Types of Map Scales:
Verbal Scale: Expresses the relationship between map distance and ground distance in words (e.g., "1 centimeter = 10 kilometers").
Representative Fraction (RF) Scale: Expresses the scale as a ratio or fraction, where both numerator and denominator are in the same units (e.g., 1:100,000).
Graphical Scale (Bar Scale): A line or bar divided into segments representing ground distances, which is the most practical scale because it remains accurate even after map resizing.
Comparative Scale: Compares different units, such as kilometers and miles.
Time Scale: Compares distance with travel time, useful for military and travel purposes.
Finding the Scale of an Unknown Map:
Use the formula: Unknown Scale = (Distance on Known Map × Denominator of Known Map's RF) / Distance on Unknown Map.
Types of Maps Based on Scale:
Small-Scale Maps: (1:500,000 or smaller) Used for general geographic overviews but require projections to represent the curved Earth on a flat surface.
Large-Scale Maps: (1:50,000 or larger) Show limited areas with great detail and accuracy.
Medium-Scale Maps: (1:50,000 to 1:250,000) Combine general information with limited detail, often using symbols and legends.
Aerial Images: Similar to maps but display all features on the Earth's surface.
Types of Maps Based on Subject Matter:
Physical Maps:
Topographic Maps: Show surface features like mountains, plains and rivers.
Weather and Climate Maps: Display temperature, pressure, wind, and precipitation patterns.
Geological Maps: Show rock formations and geological structures
Soil Maps: Depict soil types and their distribution.
Cultural Maps:
Show man-made and permanent features like roads, cities and cultivated land
Maps of Man-made, fixed, but symbolic like roads. Political maps and degrees of longitude and latitude
Maps where the content always changes like economical maps or social maps like languages, distributions of people based on religion etc.
Types of Maps Based on Form and Image:
Three-dimensional Maps: Provide a pictorial representation of surface features.
Raised Relief Maps: Present a three-dimensional view of the Earth's surface, maintaining accurate scaling in horizontal and vertical dimensions.
Educational Criteria for Map Selection:
Accuracy of information and clear printing.
Clear title indicating the map's subject.
Easy-to-read and understandable scale.
Use of standard and recognizable symbols.
Inclusion of longitude and latitude lines.
Legible and clear lettering.
Clear, recognizable, and vibrant colors.
Sufficient size for classroom visibility.
Durability for long-term use.
Reasonable cost.
Field Study:
Integral part of geographical research, providing firsthand knowledge of natural and human phenomena.
Involves direct observation and testing of information to produce accurate and new scientific findings.
Field Study Requirements:
A focused research topic.
A delimited and accessible study area.
Clear objectives leading to new and beneficial recommendations.
Field Study Preparations:
Gather relevant literature.
Collect maps and aerial photographs.
Prepare surveying and measurement tools.
Develop a field work plan, including:
Personal observation logs.
Base maps.
Lists of relevant organizations.
Photographic documentation.
Use questionnaires to gather current and new data from the selected citizens or residents.
Map Types based on Output:
Topographic Maps: Show natural and man-made features with agreed-upon symbols and colors, fundamental for geographic information systems.
Detailed City Maps: Detail urban features like streets, landmarks, airports, parks and amenities, vital for urban planning geographic information systems.
Political Maps: Depict political boundaries suitable for geographic information systems focused on international or administrative boundaries.
Transportation Maps: Highlight roads, railways, and transportation networks.
Service Maps: Show utility networks for water, telephone, or sanitation services.
Geological Maps: Represent rock formations with the help of different colors. Helpful in choosing locations for projects to develop a certain area.
Population Distribution Maps: Display demographic data to be used in demographic studies.
Vegetation Cover Maps: Displays vegetation cover including density. Mainly useful in studies of vegetation and decision making regarding agricultural grants
Land Use Maps: Displays many uses for a land such as farming, housing and commercial which proves to be of great use towards providing information
Hydrographic Maps: Display all surrounding bodies of water and contain any data regarding the depths of regional waters
Chapter 2: Geological Maps
A special-purpose map designed to showcase geological characteristics.
Developed initially by the U.S. Geological Survey, addressing scientific and practical needs such as assessment of water quality and prediction of natural disasters, aiding in the discovery of elements as well as their expenses, and administer how land and its usage are used.
Facilitate understanding geological material composition and structure, utilizing symbols and colors.
GIS technology has transformed geological mapping by providing software tools to store and analyze rock formations.
Geologists use descriptive terms to differentiate areas, compiled into official map descriptions.
Standardized geological data classifications are sought internationally for consistency across maps.
The Importance of Geological Maps:
Assist in identifying mineral and fuel deposits.
Display loose superficial deposits.
Offer vital information for planning engineering projects including tunnels, and reservoirs.
Provide information about groundwater resources.
Aid in locating construction materials.
Support mineral exploration, energy research, and civil engineering projects.
Determine the structure of the area and the sources of many of the geomorphological and topographic features.
Geological layers aren't always visible.
Maps are usually projected on topographic maps that possess contour lines.
Types of Geological Maps:
Educational Maps:
Small-scale maps with simplified representations for easy interpretation.
Colors are used to distinguish the kinds of rocks using certain colors.
Detailed Geological Maps:
Large-scale maps published by geological surveys offering detailed information for specialists.
Utilize diverse colors to represent rock types.
Structural Maps: Also known as tectonic maps, these maps are designed to show the overall structure of geological formations.
For example, structural plan showing the superficial and deep aspects of the Alps, maps documenting surface layers, in geological maps with a scale of 1:20000 all sides of the map represents and shows every element such as the colors used and shapes, showing the composition and age of the rocks, with a focus on the sedimentary placements shown with a roman letter.
Geological Maps Objectives:
Represent borderlines and the nature of all documented rocks within a certain area while assuming that the land used for agriculture is not there.
Must represent, in accurate fashion, trails used for structural purposes with the parts where rocks show on the surface or ground, these trails result from intersections of the structural surface with the land.
Geological Map Key:
A map is any form of drawing that shows different countries and their relationship with one another as well as region divided or the structure of the whole planet, it is usually shown with a key that has all the symbols and meanings of the map.
A legend comprises terminologies and symbols that symbolize all the phenomena on the map.
Information is added to maps to express additional ideas.
A sign can be a line, color, geometric form, or a point to represent what is real on the ground and describe the territory coated by the water, such as seas and lakes done through the form of blue.
The map key gives meaning and is usually placed in the corner of the map with explanation of symbols and colors. Every geological map has a guide that acts as an explanation of every element. Every geologist usually agrees that a symbol is to be made for every rock and structure. In this guide, the newest rocks are set atop of the column while the oldest are at the bottom.
The General Administration of Regional Geology consists of
Regional project
Regional dispatch
Department of Photographic Geology
Jurisdictions of the General Administration of Regional Geology:
Preparing geological maps of different sizes in the field using aerial and space images, and deriving maps with a scale of 1:2,500,000 million from them.
Classification and definition of rock units in the Republic, on which geological maps are prepared, linked to each other, and compared with the maps of neighboring countries, taking into account the global foundations in preparing this type of maps.
Preparing geological and contour preparation maps for field missions using aerial images and the necessary equipment for them.
Preparing reports on the regional geology of the areas for which maps are being made to complete the geological map of Egypt and benefit from it in the exploratory studies carried out by other relevant departments.
Obtaining sets of aerial photographs of the deserts of the Republic and preserving them and providing field missions with what they need from them.
Areas of responsibility for a regional geology project:
Coordinating work between affiliated missions to achieve the goals set in the plan.
Receiving reports that come from affiliated missions to follow up the progress of work.
Solving problems and obstacles that hinder the progress of the plan in the affiliated missions and finding alternative solutions.
Collecting and reviewing the final reports of the missions affiliated with the project.
Preparing the final report on the project to present it to the general manager of the General Administration to which it belongs.
Duties of The Regional Geological Expedition
Preparing of geological maps with different scales from the field.
Using the aerial photographs and space images in mining planning.
Defining and classifying all structural units within our country to make a perfect geological base.
preparing geological reports with information about the areas that are charted to complete the geological map of Egypt and to benefit from it in the various studies.
Tasks of The Administration of Photographic Geology are
Working with aerial pictures and space snaps to serve local and global needs.
Creating geological, structural and longitudinal maps to serve others.
Defining heights using contour maps
Enlarging and shrinking areas on the map according to the need and goals of the organization.
Geological projects can also compare the different structures over the areas to recognize similarities.
The Egyptian General Survey Authority of Geological (The Egyptian General Authority for Mineral Resources EMRA English)
The Egyptian Survey was formed in 1896 and was headed by Lyons since its founding
After 2 years a new governmental device (The Egyptian Survey Authority) was formed and it contained the geological measure within its activities
Lyons took over the presidency of the Egyptian Survey authority until he resigned in June and Dowson.M.E. took his place
and in March 12 , Dawson was promoted which led to the spot being filed by Keeling for a fast time until Weldon. B.L succeeded in September the 8th
Egyptian Survey Authority in 1898
The geologist / Darwish Mostafa Al-Far mentions in his book titled A talk about the Egyptian Geological Survey and its museum’ that Captain Lyons has formally offered a program to Lord Cromer explaining the pros of launching a geological survey for Egypt
And Captain Lyons couldn’t forget that he belongs to an invading country and from here he didn’t think of the probability of Egyptians being capable of joining The Egyptian Geological Survey so he sent words to professor Good the professor of geology in The Royal College for Science in London and the professor Maarer the professor in The University of Cambridge asking the both to nominate 3 British sociologists to work in Egypt
The choice has fallen on Thomas Baron, Hewed John Llewellyn Bednell and Lee Smith The newly developed Geological Survey in the year 1922 composed of Baron , Bednell John poole and William Fraser Home under the leadership of Captain Lyons
This early batch of geologists conducted major researches in the deserts of Egypt.
Among the prominent works carried out by the Egyptian Geological Survey is the preparation of the international border with Turkey between Taba on the Gulf of Aqaba and Rafah on the Mediterranean coast in 1906.
Which had a significant role in proving Egypts rights in the Taba area in front of the International Court of Arbitration after the Israeli withdrawal from Sinai.
Some of The Major Works:
Surveillance Studies have taken place in every portion and area of the country; Results being documented in the first Geology chart with scale 1:220. Published in 1928 in 4 boards in the Egypt Atlas back in 1932.
Besides, they had published several geology reports concerning the aquifers and underground springs in the oases and the north shore, investigating caverns in Turah district and Al-Ma’asarah for military purposes, accompanied by the additional detailed diagrams of areas in extracting/mining gold from the old mines in the eastern Sahara; The research for metallic ores, bringing along the discovery the phosphate found in south Egypt of The Nile Valley and Coast of the Red Sea, Petrol found in Gemsa- Al Munjiniz in western Sinai.
In year 1966, began a new milestone in the Egyptian Geology Survey which operated underneath The Ministry of Industry. In addition to The Geology Charting, there were modern explorations that were brought along to the field of mine exploration and geophysical as well The Egyptian Geology Survey has been granted automatic digging and probing units and lab equipment.
Egyptian General Authority for Surveying is assigned to produce all kinds of geological maps for the Arab Republic of Egypt.
There is also a remote sensing unit and geoinformation systems to produce maps, satellite maps.
Chapter 3: Geomorphological Maps
Definition: These maps show the original forms of all landforms on the Earth's surface, such as mountains, valleys, rivers, lakes, and glacial features. These features can be represented by linear or colored symbols or by contour lines.
Topographic maps are the basis for geomorphological maps.
Components: Geomorphological maps include information about the causes of these landforms, including:
Geomorphological processes.
Internal geological structure.
Rock formations.
Surface sediments.
External slopes of the Earth's surface (external shape elements).
Quantitative description of surface terrain in terms of tributary density in river basins and elevations, lengths and widths.
Chronological sequence of geomorphological phenomena.
Today, the geomorphological map is an essential tool in the search for information on landforms and knowledge of natural resources and their maintenance.
Types of Landform Maps:
A landform map (geomorphological) includes information on the locations of landform features resulting from erosion and deposition by rivers, glaciers, wind, and dissolution, as well as human activity.
Information is collected from a number of detailed maps, and the final compiled map consists of a collection of maps pieced together to form a landform map.
Landform Operation Maps: These maps chart processes by which different landform features are generated, such as rivers, glaciers, groundwater, gravity, and winds that lead to the formation of certain Earth's surface features such as sand dunes.
Rock Formation and Surface Sediment Maps: These maps are made with strong rocks that are sedimentary or were once under a body of water with more added materials.
Surface Slope Maps: Reflect categories of slopes. The surface is charted using special symbols that show the different levels with lines. There are symbols, for instance, that stand for low slope when it is bendable.
Landform Maps by Origin: These maps classify Earth's surface features based on their origin.
Maps sorting surface features by disparity in age depending on times the phenomenon happens
Maps sorting surface features according to their makeup for example different rock textures such as boulders or mesa
Types of Land Surface Charts The Geomorphological Charts
Land Surface Charts Are Classified Into Two (Charts That Are Made to Document the Phenomenon On the Land Which Can Be Used As A Blueprint To Set Up A Plan & Charts Are Made To Chart Certain Events
Land Surface Charts Are Classified By The Dutch System Into Three General Land Surface Charts, Wide ViewCharts that Contain All Details
Charts From Research & Data & Charts Are Made From A Specific Perspective That Serves A Specific Need Such As Planning Land Usage and Finding Out About The Water Ways and The Land’s Texture . And Have All That Information in The Chart As Well As Symbols and Codes.
I C . T . System, The Main Features:
General Charts Are Helpful To The Production of Charts With Their Special Usages . The System Highlights & Emphasizes The Most Important Data,
Information & Codes With High Lightening The Colors . Also ,It Should Be Made in Multi Colors & That the Coding System Be Easy & Simple As well As The Cost Be in a Standard Price And That Coding System Would Apply . To All lands
Uses of Geomorphological Maps:
Important & Necessary to Keep And Service Natural Resources & Address Environmental Matters . Also Helpful When Dealing With the Texture of The Land.
Has the Ability To Chart All the Land Forms and The Minor Changes That Happen To The Earth & Its Climate With the Ability To Gain Quantitative Data in Shape, Length’s , Slopes And Sizes to Elements .
Internal Structure and Basics
Geological formations and structures appear on the Earth surface and create a picture of surface signs and dimensions.
Two-dimensional with relation to altitude.
Geomorphological charts display the ground of the face earth it self they contain different kinds of rocks shapes and patterns also definitions
Basics Include:
The title which show the purpose and name of the area being represented.
Scale: Measuring proportions helps to achieve precise , accurate outputs of every shape within the map it also varies with depending on the dimension
It also shows the direction of the north depending on were its set on the chart also the print data must involve everything within the chart
Geomorphological Operations (Consists of 2 things)
Home based operations which involves volcanic and tectonic actions
External operation which involves wind and fluvial changes.
Geomorphological Process ( Proccess Proccess is a physical chemical change onto the texture of the rocks. Agent ) means any Natural element capable of shifting the texture and the structure.
Practical Applications chart’s Geomorphological
Evaluate ground factors also it can measure the ground and topographic , its weather , forms of texture etc.
Steps the Geomorphological Survey
Analyses texture formation of pictures. Analyses ground structure . and also classifies geological units it then determines the forms of each surface.
Steps include:
Recognizing The Area Under The Aerial Lens And Pictures
Learn the Rock Formations And the Textures
Mapping The Topography Of The Are</