Biblical Figures of Speech and Hermeneutics
Literal vs. Literalistic Biblical Interpretation
Reading the Bible literally means following what it is actually intending to teach, including the nuances of the language used to communicate truth.
Reading the Bible literalistically is a mistake; it means missing the figures of speech used in communication.
In common vocabulary, people often use the word "literal" to actually point to a figure of speech. For instance, on a hot day, someone might say, "I literally sweat to death," or on a cold day, "I literally froze to death." These statements are figuratively true but literally impossible, as the person is still alive to speak the words.
When approaching Scripture, one must understand that figures of speech help convey the intended meaning. If taken out of context and made overly literalistic, the meaning becomes absurd.
An example of literalistic absurdity is found in Jesus' statement: "If my right hand offends you… [cut it off]" or "If my right eye offends me… [pluck it out]." Jesus is not advocating for self-maiming in the pursuit of godliness; he is using a figure of speech known as hyperbole.
The primary thesis for biblical interpretation is to read the Bible literally (attentive to the author's intended meaning) but not literalistically (ignoring metaphors and idioms).
Figures of Comparison
Figures of comparison involve comparing individual concepts or entities (A to B) and come in primary forms: metaphors, similes, and similitudes.
Metaphor: A comparison that does not use the words "like" or "as."
Example: "God is our rock."
If a metaphor is taken to its logical conclusion, it becomes absurd. For instance, asking what kind of rock God is (conglomerate, marble) or its exact size misses the point of the comparison.
Cultural/historical context is necessary for perception. When the Psalmist (King David) declares God is a rock, he may be thinking of a rock cliff like those used for hiding in caves for safety, similar to the big rock cliff used in Prudential advertisements. God is like a rock in the capacity of being a refuge, but not in every literal capacity.
Simile: A comparison that explicitly uses the words "like" or "as."
Example: "The kingdom of God is like a mustard seed" or "The kingdom of God is like a little leaven."
The comparison holds in a specific capacity, such as growth or influence, but not in every physical detail.
Similitude: An extended simile that provides more detail and explanation than a standard simile.
Example: The parable of the mustard seed is a similitude because it explains that while it is the smallest of all seeds, when planted, it becomes the largest of all garden plants so that birds can nest in it.
This compares to how a first-century Jewish male born in obscurity eventually becomes King of Kings and Lord of Lords.
Figures of Addition or Fullness
Pleonism: A redundant addition of synonyms used for emphasis. It involves putting words together that do not necessarily need to be there to drive home a point.
Scriptural Example: "We did not remember but forgot." This is technically redundant because if one does not remember, they have forgotten. The repetition emphasizes that the memory is completely gone.
Secular Example: The bug spray RAID uses the tagline "Kills bugs dead." This is redundant because you cannot kill something half-dead or alive, but it emphasizes the effectiveness of the product.
Paranomasia: Placing sounds side-by-side for emphasis.
This figure of speech is difficult to see in English because it is rooted in the original Hebrew, Aramaic, or Greek sounds. Scholars are often needed to identify them.
Classic Example: Genesis describes the earth as "Tohu Va Bohu," often translated as formless and void. This indicates a watery mass where God then creates boundaries (light/dark, waters above/below, land/sea).
Connection: In the story of Noah (Genesis ), the flood returns the earth to "Tohu Va Bohu" as an act of destruction so that God can recreate, which becomes a metaphor for salvation and baptism as noted by Peter.
Hyperbole: A conscious exaggeration used to drive home a specific point.
Example: Jesus' command to cut off one's hand. He is stating that it would be better to enter heaven maimed than to go to hell with a whole body, emphasizing the seriousness of sin rather than advocating for actual self-mutilation.
Hendiadys (Hendiodis): Using two or three terms to express a single, complex idea (literally "one and two").
Example: Genesis refers to God raining down "fire and brimstone" on Sodom and Gomorrah. This may refer to a single phenomenon like a meteorite shower. The NIV often translates this as "fiery brimstone" to reflect the hendiadys.
Incomplete Expressions and Understatements
Ellipsis: A grammatically incomplete phrase where words must be added for the sentence to make sense in the receptor language.
Translation theories (literal, dynamic, and free) handle ellipses differently. Literal translations like the New American Standard (NASB) and King James Version (KJV) use italics to indicate words that were not in the original text but were added by translators to make the English readable.
Example: In second Thessalonians, regarding the man of lawlessness (antichrist), the original reads: "unless the apostasy comes first." Translators add "It will not come" in italics to complete the thought.
Irony: Saying one thing but meaning the opposite, often for effect.
Example: In the Old Testament, Michal (David’s wife) watches David dance before the Lord and says, "How the king has distinguished himself today." She means the opposite—that he made a fool of himself.
David's response and the subsequent note that Michal had no children indicate a permanent rift or divine judgment due to her despising his worship.
Litotes (Lytotes): A deliberate understatement used to magnify or emphasize a point.
Example: In Acts , the apostle Paul refers to his hometown as "no ordinary city." By understating it this way, he is actually declaring it to be an extraordinary city.
Euphemism: A nice or polite way to say something that might otherwise be unpleasant or blunt.
Example: "Passed away" or "asleep" for death.
Example: "Abraham knew his wife Sarah" is a euphemism for sexual relations. Modern translations like the NIV may remove the euphemism for clarity.
Example: In the story of Saul and David in the cave, the phrase "covering his feet" is a euphemism for using the bathroom or related physical acts.
Example: In the story of Ruth, Naomi tells Ruth to lay at Boaz's feet. While the language is euphemistic and implies making herself available, the context of the period of the Judges emphasizes the godliness of Boaz and Ruth; Boaz immediately moves to legally redeem her rather than acting inappropriately.
Antithesis: A direct contrast of ideas.
Example: Paul’s statement in Romans: "In Adam all died, in Christ all are made alive."
Figures of Association
Metonymy: The substitution of one noun for another related noun.
Examples: Using "Jell-O" for all gelatin, or "Kleenex" for all tissues.
Biblical Example: "David’s throne" refers to his kingship, rule, and family line rather than a physical piece of furniture.
Biblical Example: The "sword" in Romans refers to governmental or military authority.
Biblical Example: The "keys of the kingdom" given to Peter refer to the king's authority.
Synecdoche: A figure of speech where a part substitutes for the whole or the whole substitutes for a part.
Example: Luke states that a decree went out from Caesar Augustus that "all the world should be taxed." In this context, "world" is a synecdoche for the Roman Empire, as South Americans or Chinese people were not involved.
Eschatological Implication: If one interprets "world" as the entire globe in every instance, it affects the doctrine of imminence (the belief Jesus could come at any moment). However, the early church often used "world" to mean the Roman Empire. Paul says in Romans that the testimony of the Roman church was heard throughout "all the world" (the Empire).
Personal Dimensions and Word Studies
Personification: Giving human characteristics to non-human things or abstract concepts.
Example: In Proverbs, both Wisdom and Folly are personified as women. Some debate if the Proverbs woman is a literal woman or wisdom personified. It is written as an acrostic (the "ABCs of wisdom"), suggesting it is a deliberate literary design for wisdom.
Apostrophe: Addressing an imaginary audience or talking as though someone is there who is not.
Example: Paul has an ongoing conversation with a hypothetical opponent in Romans, asking, "Shall we sin that grace may abound?" and responding "Megan Oyto" (May it never be!).
Anthropomorphism: Attributing human physical characteristics to God so that finite beings can understand an infinite being.
Example: God has no body as a spirit, yet Scripture mentions His "face," "back," "arm," and "eyes." "Face" implies full exposure, while "back" implies partial revelation. These terms help humans grasp God's power and presence.
Etymology: Studying the history of a word.
Diachronic Study: Studying how the meaning of a word changes through time.
Synchronic Study: Studying the meaning of a word in a particular, specific time.
Example: The word "bad" can mean "not good" or it can mean "cool" depending on the generation and context. Similar shifts occur in Greek and Hebrew.
Semantic Range: All the possible meanings a word can take on based on the norms of language and utterance within a particular context.
Questions & Discussion
Question: What is the difference between a metaphor and a simile?
Answer: A simile uses the words "like" or "as," whereas a metaphor does not.
Question: Does the use of sarcasm or irony exist in the Bible?
Answer: Yes, God Himself uses sarcasm. For example, in prophecy, an imperative may be used in Hebrew telling people to "go up to Bethel and sin." This is not an endorsement of sin but a sarcastic way to point out the people's rebellion.
Discussion on "World": The group discussed how defining "world" as either the globe or the Roman Empire changes the theological understanding of whether the gospel has been preached to all nations yet. Paul claimed the gospel was heard throughout the world in his own time, referring to the Roman Empire.