Imperialism and the Arrival of Foreigners in Papua New Guinea Study Notes

Overview of Imperialism in Papua New Guinea: The Arrival of Foreigners

• This unit examines the pivotal era when Papua New Guinea (PNG) moved from isolation to intense contact with the outside world.
• It explores the diverse motivations of foreign arrivals and the profound impact their presence had on indigenous societies.
• The history of PNG was forever altered by the arrival of outsiders. While the indigenous peoples had inhabited the islands for over $50,000$ years, the $16$th century marked the beginning of documented European contact.
• This era is known as the "Age of Discovery," where European maritime powers sought to expand influence, wealth, and geographical knowledge globally.

Origin and Motives of the First Visitors

• The first foreigners to sight and visit New Guinea were primarily from Europe, specifically Portugal and Spain in the $16$th century, followed by the Dutch, French, and British.

• The Portuguese ($1526$):     * Jorge de Meneses is credited as the first European to "discover" the island.     * He was sailing from the Malay Peninsula to the Spice Islands (Maluku) and was blown off course by strong monsoon winds.     * He landed on the northwest coast (now part of West Papua) and named the land "Ilhas dos Papuas" (Islands of the Papuas).     * The name is derived from the Malay word "papuwah," meaning "frizzled hair," describing the inhabitants.

• The Spanish ($1545$):     * Approximately $20$ years after Meneses, Inigo Ortiz de Retes sailed along the northern coast.     * Unaware of the Portuguese naming, he noted a resemblance between the local people and those on the Guinea coast of Africa.     * He named the island "Nueva Guinea" (New Guinea) and claimed it for the Spanish Crown.

• Succession of Powers:     * By the $17$th and $18$th centuries, the Spanish and Portuguese monopoly faded.     * The Dutch became interested in the western half of the island near their East Indies colonies (Indonesia).     * The French and British eventually explored the southern and eastern coastlines.

• Primary Motives for Exploration:     * Exploration and Mapping: Searching for "Terra Australis Incognita" (Unknown Southern Land). European cartographers believed a massive landmass in the Southern Hemisphere was necessary to "balance" the Earth against the Northern Hemisphere.     * Resource Hunting and Wealth: Driven by "mercantilism"—the belief that a nation's power depended on wealth.         * Searching for precious metals (gold and silver).         * Seeking spices (cloves, nutmeg, mace) which were worth their weight in gold in the $16$th century.     * Trade Routes: Seeking faster, more direct routes between Europe and Asia through the Pacific to avoid the long journey via the Cape of Good Hope.     * Scientific Curiosity and Enlightenment:         * Botany and Zoology: Documenting unique Pacific flora and fauna.         * Anthropology: Nikolai Miklouho-Maclay (Russian) lived on the Rai Coast in the $1870$s to study indigenous cultures and prove all human races were equal.         * Hydrographic Surveys: Captains like James Cook and John Moresby were commissioned by the British Admiralty to create accurate charts of reefs, harbors, and coastlines to improve seafaring safety.

Effects and Reactions of Indigenous People

• Indigenous reactions were diverse, ranging from curiosity and trade to violent resistance, influenced by foreigner conduct and local beliefs.

• Interactions with Explorers:     * Spiritual Interpretations: Many groups viewed the pale-skinned Europeans as returning spirits of ancestors or "ghosts" (masalai), leading to a mix of reverence, fear, or avoidance.     * Silent Trade: Due to technology such as telescopes and firearms being alien, some groups engaged in "silent trade" where goods were exchanged without direct contact.     * Goods and Disease: Explorers introduced iron tools (hoop-iron), steel fishhooks, and mirrors via barter for water and food (pigs, yams). Tragically, "Old World" diseases (influenza, measles, smallpox) were introduced, killing thousands due to lack of natural immunity.

• Interactions with Traders:     * Economic Shifts: Locals traded for steel axes and knives, which were more efficient than stone tools. Economies shifted toward producing copra (dried coconut meat) and sea cucumbers (trepang or beche-de-mer) for the maritime-based cash economy.     * Blackbirding: This refers to the forced or deceptive recruitment of Pacific Islanders for labor on sugar plantations in Queensland or Fiji.     * Retaliation: Blackbirding caused intense hostility. Tribes often engaged in "payback" violence, attacking any European ship that arrived after a kidnapping incident.

• Interactions with Planters:     * Land Alienation: Planters sought permanent land for large plantations. While they "bought" land with beads or axes, indigenous owners often believed they were only granting usage rights, not permanent ownership.     * Resistance: Clearing sacred forests or fencing traditional hunting grounds led to sabotage and armed resistance.     * Labor Impacts: Indigenous men were forced into indentured labor, leaving villages for years, which disrupted traditional ceremonies and physical community work.

• Interactions with Missionaries:     * Mixed Reactions: Some welcomed missionaries as a buffer against violent traders and for their provision of literacy (Western education) and medicine. Others resisted the suppression of traditional rituals, polygamy, and "Haus Tambarans" (Spirit Houses).     * Social Transformation: Mission stations became community centers. Christianity acted as a bridge between warring tribes but often led to the loss of ancient cultural traditions.

Administrators and Settlers

• As European interests grew, formal government structures (administrators) and permanent residents (settlers) were established.

• Intentions of Administrators:     * Law and Order: Establishing Western legal systems, suppressing tribal warfare, and protecting Westerners (missionaries/miners).     * Constabularies: Establishing "Police Motu" or "Tok Pisin" speaking forces to enforce colonial rules.     * Resource Extraction: Systematic harvesting of timber, minerals, and agricultural products. This included mapping gold deposits and building infrastructure (roads, bridges, wharves).     * Head Taxes: Imposing taxes that had to be paid in colonial currency, forcing indigenous men to work for wages on mines and plantations.     * Strategic Sovereignty: To "plant the flag" and prevent rival nations from seizing territory.

• Intentions of Settlers:     * Economic Gain: Attracted by cheap land and potential gold or plantations (copra, rubber, cocoa).     * Dual Society: Settlers established a hierarchy where Europeans lived in modern towns while locals were restricted by "curfew laws" and relegated to labor status.

• Broad Reasons for Takeover (The Three Pillars):     * Economic: The Industrial Revolution created a hunger for raw materials (minerals, oil, rubber) and captive markets for finished goods.     * Political: The "Scramble for the Pacific." Colonies were symbols of national prestige and served as strategic maritime routes.     * Religious and Moral: The "Civilising Mission" or "White Man's Burden." The belief that Europeans had a duty to convert "heathens" to Christianity, replace "payback" with Western courts, and teach European customs.

British Papua [$1884$–$1905$]

• Period of Occupancy:     * The Protectorate ($1884$): Proclaimed on $6$ November $1884$ by Commodore Erskine. Britain offered protection but did not "own" the land.     * Annexation ($1888$): Upgraded to a Crown Colony named British New Guinea, giving Britain full sovereignty.     * Transition ($1901$-$1905$): Negotiations began after the Federation of Australia. The Papua Act of $1905$ led to the renaming of the territory to "Papua" in $1906$ under Australian control.

• Imperial Powers:     * Great Britain: Provided the legal framework and administrators but was reluctant due to the high expense.     * Queensland Connection: The Australian colony of Queensland drove the annexation. They even tried to annex it themselves in $1883$. Britain only agreed to the protectorate on the condition that Australian colonies paid for the administration.

• Motives and Strategic Buffer:     * Australia feared German expansion in the north. British control of the south ensured the Torres Strait remained a safe shipping lane for Australian trade (coal and wool).

• Attitudes:     * Paternalism and Protection: Sir Peter Scratchley and Sir William MacGregor focused on shielding natives from alcohol, firearms, and land theft.     * Legal Supremacy: MacGregor introduced the Native Constabulary and Village Constable system, believing the people must accept British law through "government by patrol."

German New Guinea [$1884$–$1914$]

• Period of Occupancy:     * Beginning ($1884$): Flag raised at Mioko (Duke of York Islands) and Finschhafen. Claims included north-east mainland and Bismarck Archipelago.     * Neuguinea-Kompagnie ($1884$-$1899$): A private business administered the colony but failed economically due to disease and resistance.     * Imperial Administration ($1899$-$1914$): The German Imperial Government took direct control. Capitals: Finschhafen, then Herbertshöhe (Kokopo), and finally Rabaul in $1910$.     * The End ($1914$): Rule ended when Australian forces invaded at the start of World War I.

• Territories: Kaiser-Wilhelmsland (mainland), Bismarck Archipelago (New Britain, New Ireland), Northern Solomon Islands (Bougainville, Buka), and Micronesian Islands (Caroline, Mariana, Marshall Islands bought from Spain).

• Motives and Attitudes:     * Purely Economic: Focused on industrial-scale copra production; conducted advanced botanical research for cocoa and coffee.     * Efficiency and Control: Militaristic administration using "statute labor" (forced road/wharf work) and corporal punishment (flogging).     * The Luluai System: Lacking personnel, Germans appointed local leaders (Luluais) as representatives. They were identified by a cap and silver-headed cane and collected taxes.

The Australian Papua [$1905$–$1914$]

• Period of Occupancy:     * Began with the Papua Act of $1905$. This era ended in $1914$ when Australia shifted focus to managing both the south (as owner) and the north (as military occupier).

• Key Figure: Sir Hubert Murray (Administrator in $1907$, Lieutenant-Governor in $1908$). He ruled for over $30$ years.

• Motives:     * National Security ("Front Door"): Belief that control of Papua prevented hostile nations (Germany or Japan) from launching an invasion of Australia.     * White Australia Policy: Control of Papua prevented it from becoming a gateway for Asian migration into the Pacific.     * Economic Self-Sufficiency: Encouraged Australian settlers to start rubber and coconut plantations to offset administration costs.

• The Murray Method (Paternalism):     * Protecting Land Rights: Murray prevented direct land sales between locals and foreigners; the government acted as an intermediary to ensure locals kept gardening land.     * Slow Development: Viewed locals as "child-like" and not ready for rapid modernization; resisted large-scale industrial mining.     * Indirect Influence: Expanded the Village Constable system to bring order via peaceful patrolling rather than military force.

Summary Table: Colonial Comparison

• Feature: British Papua     * Capital: Port Moresby     * Primary Goal: Strategic Security     * Philosophy: Indirect rule / Protection     * Main Export: Gold, Beche-de-mer

• Feature: German New Guinea     * Capital: Finschhafen / Herbertshöhe (Kokopo) / Rabaul     * Primary Goal: Commercial Profit     * Philosophy: Direct rule / Commercial expansion     * Main Export: Copra (Coconuts)

Unit Answer Keys

• Topic 1:     * Explorer using "Papua": Jorge de Meneses.     * Papuwah meaning: "Frizzled" or curly nature of hair.     * Mythical continent: Terra Australis Incognita.     * Naming "New Guinea": Similarity noted between locals and those of the Guinea coast in West Africa.     * Motives comparison: $16$th century focused on "God, Gold, and Glory"; $19$th century focused on science and anthropology.

• Topic 2:     * Spirits belief: True.     * Blackbirding: False (It was forced/deceptive).     * Steel axes benefit: True.     * Missionaries and Haus Tambaran: False (They suppressed them).     * Group Matches: Explorers (foreign disease/iron), Traders (payback/blackbirding), Planters (land loss), Missionaries (Christianity/literacy).

• Topic 3:     * Vocabulary: Sovereignty (Permanent government right), Head Tax (Tax per person), Infrastructure (Systems like roads/ports), Civilising Mission (Belief in "improving" natives).     * Australian pressure: Fear of German military threat on the border.     * Head Tax and Labor: Since people had no money, they were forced into plantation work to earn the cash for the tax.

• Topic 4:     * $1884$: British Protectorate.     * $1888$: Formal Annexation.     * $1905$: Papua Act passed.     * Reluctance: London did not want the financial expense of a territory with little obvious gold/spices.     * Queensland Role: Pressured Britain and agreed to pay administration costs.

• Topic 5:     * Initial Admin: Neuguinea-Kompagnie.     * Main Export: Copra.     * Final Capital: Rabaul.     * Luluai Role: Village chief representing government, collecting taxes, enforcing order.     * $1914$ End: Australian troops invaded/captured headquarters at the start of WWI.

• Topic 6:     * Paternalism: Governing like a father (providing needs but not full rights).     * "Front Door": Geographic location seen as the first line of defense for Australia.     * Land Protection: Banned direct sale of land from locals to settlers.     * $1914$ Change: Australia occupied German New Guinea, expanding responsibility to the entire eastern half of the island.