Historical Practices in Medicine and Burial

Bloodletting and Monasteries

• Definition of Bloodletting:

  • Bloodletting was a belief that draining blood from the body could cure illnesses and remove toxins.

  • Procedure: Blood was usually drained from veins and might continue until the patient fainted.

• Role of Monasteries:

  • Monks originally provided all medical care for their fellow monks, including regular bloodletting and (though rare) embalming practices.

  • 13th Century Change: By the 13th century, the Catholic Church forbade the clergy from practicing medicine.

  • Rationale: It was held that those who had taken religious vows should only study spiritual matters, and that spilling blood was against the views of the Church.

Barber Surgeons

• Distinction of Medical Professionals:

  • Medical professionals were divided into two main categories:

  • Physicians: Provided “physic,” or medicine.

  • Barber Surgeons: Handled anything requiring cutting of the body, including cutting hair, pulling teeth, and amputating limbs.

• Symbolism of Barber Pole:

  • Today’s barber pole represents the blood and bandages used by barber surgeons.

• Transition in Medical Practice:

  • As monks were no longer allowed to practice medicine, barber surgeons filled that role.

  • Responsibilities: Besides bloodletting and amputations, they also began performing embalmings from about 1400.

• Guild Formation:

  • By 1604, the Barber Surgeon Guild was the only guild permitted to perform embalmings.

• Notable Event:

  • In 1646, Michael Makeland, a British tradesman and undertaker, challenged this monopoly on embalmings.

  • Outcome: He was unsuccessful, but this represents the first recorded instance of someone taking action against this monopoly.

Feudal Funerals

• Characteristics of Feudal Funerals:

  • Lavish displays and rituals defined feudal funerals.

  • Ownership of Goods: Goods used in funerals, such as black draperies, black mourning beds, velvet palls, and mourning clothes, were typically owned by the family.

• Role of Heralds:

  • Heralds supervised funerals, acting as secular funeral directors.

Funeral Undertakers

• Emergence of Undertakers:

  • As middle-class merchants began spending more on funerals, a new occupation emerged—the undertaker.

  • Initial Role: Initially, undertakers sold or rented necessary items and set up the funeral house.

  • Task Expansion: Over time, their responsibilities expanded to include hiring mutes and funeral carriages, vital for staging funerals.

  • Crude Embalming: In some cases, undertakers performed a crude type of embalming, often filling the body with tar and sawdust.

• Funeral Mutes:

  • Mutes were professional mourners who silently stood at the entrance of the house or led the funeral procession.

Coffins and Funeral Goods

• Tradesmen's Roles in Funerals:

  • Some tradesmen had sideline operations selling funeral merchandise.

  • Drapers: Sold black cloth and mourning clothes.

  • Carpenters and Cabinetmakers: Provided coffins.

  • Liverymen: Hired out carriages for funeral processions.

  • Some of these tradesmen also offered to perform the funeral services.

Edwin Chadwick (1800-1890)

• Background:

  • English social reformer known for addressing public health issues.

• Prominent Works:

  • Published “Sanitary Condition of the Laboring Population of Great Britain” and “The Practice of Interments in Towns” (1842).

• Findings:

  • Discovery of Insurance Fraud: Found that children were sometimes murdered to collect insurance from burial clubs.

  • Health Concerns: Noted that remains decomposed during long wakes, spreading disease.

  • Grave Issues: Identified that graves were too shallow, emitting foul odors.

  • Price Fixing: Reported price-fixing was common.

  • Record Keeping Issues: Criticized the Church of England for incompetence in record-keeping.

Burial and Sanitary Reform

• Certification Requirement:

  • By 1874, a medical professional was required to certify deaths before burial, a practice suggested by Chadwick.

• Public Sanitation Movement:

  • Over time, more voices called for public sanitation reforms.

  • Outcome: This movement aimed to provide clean water and better overall conditions to combat diseases such as cholera.

  • Burial Ground Regulations:

  • Prohibition of new burial grounds inside cities and reforms implemented at older burial grounds.

Charles Dickens (1812-1870)

• Background:

  • Renowned writer and social commentator.

• Depictions in Literature:

  • Described British funeral practices, burial societies, and insurance fraud within his novels.

  • Example in “Oliver Twist”:

  • Oliver becomes an apprentice to the undertaker Mr. Sowerberry, described as “a tall gaunt, large jointed man, attired in a suit of threadbare black, with darned cotton stockings of the same colour, and shoes to answer.”

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)

• Contributions:

  • Leonardo da Vinci was known for his wide array of talents and keen interest in anatomy.

• Dissection Work:

  • He had permission to perform dissections and dissected 30 bodies during his lifetime.

• Planned Publication:

  • Intended to publish a comprehensive book on anatomy and created over 200 anatomical drawings, which, although never published, still exist.

Frederick Ruysch (1638-1731)

• Background:

  • Dutch botanist and anatomist, recognized as the Father of Embalming.

• Techniques:

  • Developed the method of arterial injection combined with a secret formula known as “liquor balsamicum” to preserve anatomical specimens.

• Museum of Anatomy:

  • Maintained a museum in his home, showcasing artistic displays of his preserved anatomical collection.

Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694)

• Contributions:

  • Italian biologist and physician known as the founder of microscopic anatomy and histology.

• Microscopic Discoveries:

  • He was the first to see the capillary bed under a microscope, revolutionizing the understanding of blood circulation.

Girolamo Segato (1792-1836)

• Background:

  • Florentine physician who studied mummification techniques in Egypt.

• Petrification Technique:

  • Developed a unique method to “petrify” cadavers, transforming them to a stone-like texture while preserving their color and texture.

  • Secrecy of Method: He destroyed his notes before passing away, and his technique remains unduplicated.

Gabriel Clauderus (1633-1691)

• Background:

  • German anatomist who contributed significantly to embalming practices.

• Publication:

  • Published the work “Arterial Embalming without Evisceration.”

• Embalming Method:

  • The technique included injecting the major arteries with chemicals termed “balsamic spirits,” vatting the body in balsamic spirits for 5 to 6 weeks, followed by drying the preserved body in an oven or sunshine.

  • Result: This method produced high-quality cadavers suitable for medical study.

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)

• Contributions:

  • Known as the “Father of Microbiology.”

• Development of Microscopes:

  • Created powerful microscopes comparatively sophisticated for his time, although he kept his methods a secret.

• Discoveries:

  • First to observe single-celled organisms and made numerous other important discoveries.

  • Self-taught individual (initially a cloth merchant) whose research findings are known through letters sent to the Royal Society and other scientific institutions.

Dr. William Harvey (1578-1657)

• Contributions:

  • Injected colored solutions into arteries to illustrate blood circulation.

• Blood Circulation:

  • First to thoroughly describe the systematic circulation of blood throughout the body.

• Teaching and Publication:

  • Shared his findings with students in 1618 prior to publishing his comprehensive work on circulation in 1628.

Dr. William Hunter (1718-1783)

• Background:

  • Scottish anatomist noted for his descriptions of body preservation techniques for anatomical use and funeral practices.

• Expert Obstetrician:

  • Conducted anatomical studies focusing on pregnant women.

• Family Ties:

  • Helped train his younger brother, John Hunter, and collaborated with him for many years.

Dr. John Hunter (1728-1793)

• Background:

  • Younger brother of William Hunter, distinguished Scottish surgeon and anatomist.

• Cultural Impact:

  • His lifestyle and character are believed to have inspired the creation of the characters Dr. Jekyll and Dr. Doolittle.

• Collection:

  • Accumulated numerous anatomical specimens throughout his lifetime.

• Naming Legacy:

  • Hunter’s Canal, the anatomical space that contains the femoral artery and vein along with the saphenous nerve, is named in his honor.

Jean-Nicolas Gannal (1791-1852)

• Background:

  • Served as a pharmacist and chemist within the French army during the Napoleonic Wars.

• Post-Military Career:

  • After leaving the military, he was involved in preserving cadavers for anatomical studies.

• Burial Societies:

  • Formed burial societies tailored for the nobility and emerging merchant class, where he served as president.

• Innovation:

  • Recognized as the first medical anatomist to merge embalming practices with funeral services, proving to be highly lucrative.

• Published Work:

  • Authored “The History of Embalming,” regarded as a classic text on the subject in the United States.

Dr. Thomas Greenhill (1669-1740)

• Contributions:

  • Wrote “Treatise on the Art of Embalming,” addressing issues with British tradesmen undertakers.

  • Advocated that only barber surgeons should be entitled to perform embalming.

• Personal Note:

  • Noteworthy fact: He was the last child born (the 39th) in the family, arriving after the death of his father.