SOCIAL STUDIES

Overview of Tenement Slums and Political Corruption

Jacob Riis was a notable photojournalist who exposed the dreadful conditions of tenement slums through his work, including the book How the Other Half Lives. During this period, muckraking emerged, where journalists worked to shed light on issues often hidden from the public's view. Two major concerns affecting politics at the time were the power of the rich, leading to questions on how wealthy men controlled politics, and the corruption stemming from the spoils system that resulted in bribery and voter fraud. Many citizens believed the government was "of, by, and for the rich."

Political Bosses

Political bosses were powerful politicians who gained influence over local governments, controlling county and state governments in exchange for payoffs from businesses. In return, they provided jobs, loans, clothing, and coal to those in need in exchange for votes. One particularly infamous political boss was Boss Tweed, who cheated New York City out of over $100 million during the 1860s and 70s. His corruption was exposed by journalists through political cartoons and articles. When faced with imprisonment, Tweed fled to Spain but was eventually arrested there and died in jail in 1878.

Tammany Hall and Patronage

Tammany Hall was a committee formed under the Democratic Party, which initially aimed to help poor and immigrant populations but eventually gained a reputation as a corrupt political machine. Members of Tammany Hall expected votes or political favors in return for their assistance. This patronage created a culture where job seekers demanded government jobs as rewards for political support. President Hayes took steps to reform the spoils system in 1877 by investigating the New York customhouse, discovering hundreds of individuals receiving high salaries despite not working.

Assassination of President Garfield and Reform

In 1881, President James Garfield was elected during a period of rampant job seeking and was shot by Charles Guiteau, who was frustrated by not receiving an office job. Garfield died two months later, leading his vice president, Chester A. Arthur, to work towards reforming the spoils system. The Pendleton Act of 1883 established the Civil Service Commission to ensure federal job appointments were merit-based, controlling about 40% of federal jobs by 1900, focusing on jobs excluding military and elected offices.

Social Darwinism and Government Regulation

Herbert Spencer's concept of Social Darwinism applied the idea of "survival of the fittest" to human society, justifying the actions of Gilded Age barons who believed they were more socially fit, which contributed to racism and unjust treatment of workers. In response to the behavior of big business owners, Americans demanded governmental control over business, especially the railroad industry. President Grover Cleveland signed the Interstate Commerce Act in 1887, forbidding pools and rebates and establishing the Interstate Commerce Commission, which initially had weak powers but grew stronger with additional legislation over time.

Major Legislative Acts and Progressive Movements

In 1888, Benjamin Harrison was elected and created the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890, which prohibited businesses from limiting competition. Journalists like Ida Tarbell exposed unfair practices in the oil industry, while Upton Sinclair's The Jungle revealed unsanitary practices in meatpacking. These exposes helped Progressives engage Americans in politics. The movement advocated for reforms like recall (removing corrupt officials), referendum (voting bills into law), initiative (bringing bills to the legislature with public support), and primary elections, where voters chose the party's candidates.

Urbanization and Immigration

Urbanization, the movement of people from rural areas to cities, began slowly in the 1800s but increased with industrialization. By 1900, one-third of Americans lived in cities, drawn by jobs in steel mills, meatpacking plants, and garment factories. Domestic migration was driven by the need for employment. Poor neighborhoods typically clustered near city centers, characterized by tenements—small apartments in buildings of 6-7 stories. The poor conditions led to rapid disease spread, including typhoid and cholera, both exacerbated by inadequate sanitation and crowded living conditions.

The Wealthy and Philanthropy

In contrast, middle-class neighborhoods were located outside slums, featuring spaced-out homes and leading to a lower spread of disease. Middle-class inhabitants, such as doctors and lawyers, engaged in leisure activities that fostered community ties, while wealthy neighborhoods included mansions protected by gates. Many wealthy individuals, inspired by European royalty, threw lavish parties and showcased their status through expensive artworks.

Social Responsibility and Settlement Houses

The Catholic Church and movements like the Social Gospel encouraged wealthy church members to assist the needy. Organizations such as the Salvation Army provided food and shelter, and settlement houses offered various services to marginalized individuals. Jane Addams, a wealthy woman, founded Hull House in 1889 in one of Chicago's poorest slums, offering classes in American governance, healthcare, and leisure activities. By 1900, approximately 100 settlement houses were established in American cities.

Immigration Challenges

Immigration surged from 1865 to 1915, with over 25 million arrivals. Ellis Island processed European immigrants, subjecting them to thorough examinations, while Angel Island did the same for Asian immigrants, including many from China and India. However, anti-Asian sentiments grew, leading to policies like the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which barred Chinese laborers from entering the U.S. and barred those who left from returning. The act was repealed in 1943, but challenges persisted as many Chinese immigrants remained in America, facing cultural misunderstandings and economic hardships. Nativists sought limited immigration and argued that immigrants disrupted American society, contributing to a climate of hostility towards newcomers.