Bacon 2014

Examination of children’s role within the framework of citizenship as meaning-makers.
Discusses the extent to which children are recognized as individuals who can define values related to citizenship.
Argues for recognition of citizenship not merely as a product of structural dynamics but as influenced by children’s agency.
Emphasizes the importance of children's participation in society and their contributions to social norms and values.

Citizenship is a key topic in contemporary British political discourse.
The Coalition Government promotes 'active citizenship' focusing on volunteering as a solution for societal issues.
"Citizenship" denotes full societal membership but lacks a uniform definition; it remains a contested concept.
Raises critical questions about childhood and the status of children as current citizens rather than future adults.

Citizenship had historical roots in Greek polis, providing societal privileges while imposing responsibilities.
T.H. Marshall’s essay "Citizenship and Social Class" serves as a seminal reference in citizenship discourse.
- Describes citizenship in three main rights categories:
1. Civil Rights - Protective of individual freedoms such as speech and property rights, developed in the 18th century.
2. Political Rights - Including the right to vote and stand for office, established in the 19th century.
3. Social Rights - Encompassing rights to education, healthcare, and welfare, solidified in the 20th century.
Social rights mitigate market capitalism excesses and address social inequities.
Marshall’s framework shows a historical progression and critique of citizenship,
- Noteworthy limitation: it appears gender-biased, failing to account for women’s rights prior to legal changes.
- Suggests children are seen as 'citizens-in-the-making', dependent on education.

Previous interpretations tend to view citizenship from a primarily adult-centric lens, marginalizing children.
Education links children's agency to citizenship without recognizing children as active agents.
Miller (2000) expands Marshall's three categories to highlight individuals' participation in civic processes.
Byrne (2005) criticizes the individualistic focus of citizenship, proposing a collectivist framework that fosters equality.
Levitas (2005) focuses on shared societal values and inclusion as central to citizenship, further marginalizing children's perspectives in political theory.

Children are often excluded from essential rights based on age.
The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) is a pivotal document that recognizes various rights of children:
- Civil Rights: Freedom of speech and protection against discrimination.
- Economic Rights: Protections against poverty.
- Social Rights: Right to education, health, and nutrition.
Critiques of the UNCRC highlight adultism and potential non-implementation by governments.
Osler and Starkey (2005) posit that children have the right to express views, marking them as citizens today rather than in the future.
Challenges persist regarding the right to express views based on age and maturity assessment.

Scholars stress that children’s citizenship should not be solely about preparation for adulthood but recognize their active engagement now.
Kellett (2011): Emphasizes children as competent social agents participating in shaping society through their actions.
Lister (2008): Children exist in an ambiguous status regarding rights and responsibilities.
- Validates children’s citizen-like actions even without formal recognition.
- This emphasizes the ongoing debates about adult-centric notions of citizenship versus the reality of children’s active roles.

Activism among children can be seen in informal settings like peer mediation in schools where children resolve conflicts.
Roche (1999) advocates for recognizing children’s contributions to society.
Calls for a shift from age-centric models that restrict children from participating in defining social values.

Methodology: Semi-structured interviews with twins and their parents.
Explores how children respond to societal meanings around twinship and identity, balancing conformity and individuality.
Example: Twins Ash and Harry show how environment influences their identity performance, highlighting familial regulations versus peer interactions at school.
- At home, parental control emphasizes sameness (example: matching outfits).
- At school, Harry attempts to establish individuality, demonstrating agency through social choice-making (e.g., preferring to spend time with friends separate from his twin).

Focused on children aged 9-11 years exploring their moral understandings.
Study illustrates children’s active participation in constructing moral meanings, not merely complying with imposed structures.
Children struggle with power dynamics in the adults-vs-children hierarchy:
- Teacher-Child Dynamics: Identifies adults as moral authority figures, yet children reflect on moral judgements collectively outside the adult’s direct supervision.
- Example: David’s strategic use of adult authority (reporting peers to teachers) exemplifies children's understanding of navigating power structures to assert themselves socially.

Children's agency is crucial in defining social norms and values within their interactions.
Effective participation outlines that children actively influence and contribute to their societal roles.
The necessity for re-framing citizenship concepts should recognize children's position as actual contributors to moral and social values.
Emphasizes the fluidity of citizenship and rights as a continuous social construct shaped significantly by children's ongoing actions and relationships across diverse contexts.
Suggests a shared partnership between children and adults in the ongoing creation of citizenship frameworks, challenging traditional constructs of dependency.
Calls for recognition of children's ongoing role in generating citizenship meanings, acknowledging them as both social actors and recipients of others' socialization.