Ottoman Settlement, Appeasement, and Intellectual Traditions

The Iskan and Istimalet Policies of the Ottoman State

The survival and expansion of the Ottoman State in Rumelia were primarily facilitated by specific policies that prioritized permanent settlement over colonial exploitation. Unlike typical colonial empires, the Ottomans aimed to establish a new homeland in the conquered territories, focusing on the welfare of the local population. By implementing the Iskan (Settlement) and Istimalet (Appeasement) policies, the state managed to maintain dominance in the Balkans for more than $500$ years, spanning from the $14^{th}$ century to the early $20^{th}$ century.

The fundamental objectives of these policies were multi-faceted. First and foremost, they were designed to ensure the permanence of conquests and establish regional security. Through the creation of new settlements and architectural activities known as "imar," the state sought to "şenlendirmek" (enliven or cultivate) the regions. A critical internal goal was the transition of nomadic Turkmen (Konargöçer) to a settled lifestyle. Furthermore, these efforts aimed to facilitate the Turkification and Islamization of specific strategic locations to solidify the Ottoman presence.

The Iskan Policy: Mechanics and Strategic Implementation

Iskan is defined as the policy of placing either settled or nomadic groups into a specific region to Turkify, Islamize, and secure the area. This was a planned settlement strategy where the right number of people with specific skills or backgrounds were moved either by their own choice or by state decree. The Ottoman administration took several factors into account when designing these settlements, including the geographical features, socio-economic structure, political climate, population characteristics, and transport routes of the conquered territory.

The process was spearheaded by various groups including veterans (gaziler), tribal leaders (aşiret reisleri), raiders (akıncılar), dervishes, and timariot sipahis (timarlı sipahiler). To ensure a smooth transition, the state often chose people living in areas adjacent to the conquest zone. Specific groups were prioritized for mandatory settlement: nomads (Konargöçer), tribes or families involved in internal conflicts or blood feuds (kan davalı aileler), landless peasants (topraksız köylüler), and those perceived as potential threats to central authority, such as the leaders of former Anatolian beyliks.

State incentives were provided to encourage settlement, but there was a strict rule: once settled, returning to the original homeland without a valid excuse was prohibited. The Iskan policy was first implemented during the reign of Orhan Bey in Gelibolu and subsequently in Hayrabolu. It later became the standard practice for all conquered Balkan territories.

The Benefits and Socio-Economic Impact of Iskan

The Iskan policy had profound long-term effects on the geography and society of the Balkans. Turkmen settlers renamed their new towns and villages with Turkish titles, a legacy that persists today in countries like Bulgaria. By providing settlers with "timar" lands, the state simultaneously increased agricultural production, ensured local security, and met military needs through the provincial cavalry system.

The policy acted as a "stepping stone," as settlements near the frontiers provided a base for further conquests. It strengthened state authority while promoting social peace and stability. A vital component of this was the "Derbent" organization (a type of police or outpost organization) established along roads to ensure the safety of travel and trade, which in turn encouraged the growth of villages and towns. Furthermore, the settlers constructed thousands of architectural works, making the Balkans a prosperous and developed region.

Numerical Data: Ottoman Foundations and Works in the Balkans and Central Europe

The extent of Ottoman construction is evidenced by the massive number of works established by foundations (vakıfs). The following data outlines the works identified in various regions, comparing the total number of items built to those that have survived to the present day:

In Albania, $1015$ works were built, of which $230$ remain. In Bosnia-Herzegovina, out of $3542$ works, only $628$ are extant. Bulgaria saw the construction of $3339$ works, with $576$ surviving. Croatia had $644$ works built, with $52$ surviving. Montenegro (Karadağ) had $241$ works built, and $41$ survive. In Kosovo, $926$ works were built, and $220$ remain. Hungary (Macaristan) saw $1424$ constructions, with $137$ surviving. North Macedonia had $3771$ works built, and $906$ remain. Romania had $756$ works built, with $222$ surviving. Serbia saw $433$ works built, with $161$ surviving. Finally, in Greece (Yunanistan), $291$ works were built, and $140$ survived.

The Istimalet Policy: Justice, Tolerance, and Social Integration

Istimalet refers to a policy centered on justice, tolerance, and "winning hearts" (gönül alma). From its inception, the Ottoman state was built on these principles to ensure the loyalty of its non-Muslim subjects in Rumelia and the Balkans. By showing respect to different faiths and protecting the lives and property of the local populace, the Ottomans successfully integrated diverse communities into the state framework.

A significant result of Istimalet was the liberation of the Balkan peasantry from the oppressive burdens of late medieval feudalism. Under Ottoman rule, these populations enjoyed the protection of a centralized, orderly government. Non-Muslims were granted extensive religious freedom. This tolerant atmosphere led some segments of the population to embrace Islam voluntarily and adapt to Turkish traditions, ultimately fostering a stable social and state order in the Balkans.

Supporting Mechanisms: Akıncıs, Organizations, and Foundations

The success of Iskan and Istimalet was supported by several dedicated groups and institutions. Frontier lords (uç beyleri) and families such as the Evrenosoğulları, Turahanoğulları, Mihaloğulları, and Malkoçoğulları played crucial roles in the initial conquests and stabilization. These groups were often granted land as property in the regions they conquered.

Social and economic organizations were also vital. The Ahiyan-ı Rum (Anatolian Ahis/Guilds), the Bacıyan-ı Rum (Anatolian Sisters/Women's organizations), and the Gaziyan-ı Rum (Anatolian Gazis/Veterans) participated in the social and economic integration of the new territories. Furthermore, the Abdalan-ı Rum (Horasan Erenleri or Colonizing Turkish Dervishes), including figures like Sarı Saltuk, Otman Baba, Geyikli Baba, and Kumral Abdal, established lodges (tekke and zaviye) that acted as cultural and spiritual centers.

Finally, the role of foundations (Vakıfs) was indispensable. They financed and constructed essential public infrastructure—roads, fountains, bridges, inns (han), baths (hamam), soup kitchens (imaret), schools (medrese), and hospitals (darüşşifa)—without draining the state treasury. These institutions made cities and villages prosperous and deepened the locals' loyalty to the Ottoman state.

Conceptual Framework of Ottoman Science and Wisdom

To understand Ottoman intellectual and social life, several key terms must be defined. A "City" in the Ottoman context was defined as a place where the Friday prayer (Cuma namazı) was performed and a local market (Pazar) was established. A "Vakıf" (Foundation) was a social institution for public and charitable services, governed by a document called a "Vakfiye," which detailed the founder, date, and purpose of the institution.

Educational centers included the "Medrese," which provided high-level instruction, led by a "Müderris" (professor). A "Külliye" was a complex of buildings centered around a mosque, including libraries, soup kitchens, and hospitals. Commercial spaces like "Bedesten" were indoor or outdoor bazaars. For spiritual education, dervishes gathered in "Tekke" (large lodges) or "Zaviye" (smaller lodges) to receive guidance from Sufi leaders.

Urbanization and the Ottoman City Culture

The Ottoman Empire prioritized a settled culture and urban development. Instead of building entirely new cities, the state preferred to transform existing ones by giving them a new identity. Upon conquering a city, the largest church was typically converted into a mosque (Ulu Cami), and a judge (Kadı) and security official (Subaşı) were appointed to establish justice and order.

Cities developed systematically around the central mosque or Külliye, often growing from inside the fortresses (sur içi) to external areas known as "tahta kale." This structure integrated the tradition of science and wisdom (ilim ve irfan) into the very fabric of urban life. Cities like Iznik, Bursa, and Edirne, inherited from the Byzantines, and others like Kütahya, Amasya, and Konya, taken from the Beyliks, were transformed to reflect the Turko-Islamic spirit. Administratively, these cities were the centers of provinces (sancak), districts (kaza), and sub-districts (nahiye).

The Educational Tradition and the Role of Medreses

Ottoman intellectual activities were fed by two main streams: the eastern branch (via Maveraünnehir, Iran, and Iraq) and the southern branch (via Andalusia, North Africa, Egypt, and Damascus). The Seljuk Nizamiye Medreses served as the primary inspiration. The first Ottoman medrese, the Orhaniye Medrese, was opened by Orhan Gazi in Iznik. Its first professor was Davud-i Kayseri.

As the empire grew, medreses in Bursa and Edirne became major centers of attraction. The language of education was Arabic. The curriculum consisted of linguistic training followed by religious sciences and "cüziyyat" (rational sciences), which included astronomy, literature, philosophy, logic, mathematics, and medicine. Beyond medreses, Sufi lodges (tekke and zaviye) also served as centers for science, wisdom, and art, revitalizing the cultural life of cities in both Anatolia and the Balkans.

Pivotal Figures of the Science and Wisdom Tradition

Several leaders shaped the intellectual and moral foundation of the Ottoman state. Şeyh Edebali ($?-1326$), born in Karaman and educated in Damascus, was a leader of the Ahis. He famously interpreted Osman Gazi's dream as a sign of his dynasty's future sovereignty and became his father-in-law. Davud-i Kayseri ($1260-1350$), the first chief professor at the Iznik Medrese, integrated Sufism with rational and religious sciences and brought classical Islamic mathematics (from scholars like Al-Khwarizmi and Ibn al-Haytham) to the Ottoman curriculum.

Dursun Fakih ($13^{th}-14^{th}$ centuries), a student of Şeyh Edebali, was appointed as the first judge (Fakih/Hakim) and imam (Müftü) in Karacahisar. He is credited with reading the first Friday sermon (hutbe) in the name of Osman Gazi. Emir Sultan ($?-1430$), a prominent scholar in Bursa who married the daughter of Yıldırım Bayezid, was instrumental in building the Bursa Grand Mosque (Ulu Cami) and organizing socio-cultural events like the "Erguvan" (Judas tree) festivals. Finally, Hacı Bayram Veli ($?-1430$) of Ankara founded the Bayramiye order and influenced the tradition of wisdom through his students, including Akşemseddin (the teacher of Fatih Sultan Mehmed).