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Lecture #4

LECTURE 4: CORRELATES OF CRIME

Course Information

  • Course Title: SOC*1000 Current Topics in Criminology & Criminal Justice

  • Term: Fall 2025

  • Section: 02

Lecture Overview

  • Focus on understanding the concept of correlates of crime.

  • Presentation of critical perspectives on common correlates such as age, gender, socioeconomic status (SES), race/ethnicity, and location.

Definition of a Correlate of Crime

  • Correlate: A factor that is observed to associate with an outcome of interest related to crime.

  • It is essential to differentiate between correlation and causation:

    • Correlation does not imply causation.

  • Importance of examining alternative explanations for observed patterns between correlates and criminal outcomes critically.

  • Emphasizing a critical lens to challenge claims of inherent criminality based on background factors.

Correlate #1: Age

  • Observed Pattern: Participation in crime and frequency of delinquent behavior generally decline with age.

    • Most Offending Age Range: ~15-22 years.

    • Peak Arrest Ages:

    • Property Crimes: ~16 years

    • Violent Crimes: ~18 years

    • Criminal behavior declines after age ~20.

    • Note: Data may vary depending on the source.

Age-Crime Curve

  • The Age-Crime Curve depicts a curvilinear relationship:

    • Intensification in Adolescence: Crime rates rise during this period.

    • Peak in Young Adulthood: Crime rates reach their highest.

    • Decline: After young adulthood, crime rates decrease.

  • Demonstrates the necessity of considering the entire life course and childhood experiences.

Explanations for Aging Out of Crime

  • Possible explanations for the observed decline in criminal behavior with advancing age:

    1. Impact of Data and Methods: Youth crime measurements are sensitive to legal, police, and media influences, potentially skewing statistics.

    2. Youth's Social Dynamics: Young individuals often have less social power and fewer resources to avoid processing in the criminal justice system and resist deviant labels.

    3. Social Changes: Moving into adulthood brings opportunities for conformity, such as employment and relationships.

    4. Decrease in Criminal Opportunities: As individuals age, the opportunities for engaging in crime may diminish.

    5. Transitional Life Period: Adolescence is a phase marked by a fluid sense of self, contributing to a higher engagement in various activities including crime.

Correlate #2: Gender

  • Observed Pattern: Males commit more crimes than females, evidenced by the notable “gender gap” in offending.

    • Gender's Predictive Power: It is the strongest demographic predictor of criminal behavior.

    • Arrest Statistics: Men account for over 80% of all arrests in the U.S. since 2000.

    • Universal Trend: Higher crime rates among men tend to appear across various times and places, but differ based on crime type.

Explanations for the Gender Gap

  1. Biological Differences: The theory suggests high testosterone levels in men may lead to increased aggression and risk-taking, though this theory has weak empirical support.

  2. Gender Role Socialization: Traditional roles may encourage criminal behavior as compatible with masculinity, while such behavior is often deemed incompatible with femininity. Boys receive social reinforcement for violent behavior through parental discipline.

  3. State Paternalism: Protective measures for female offenders may distort perceptions regarding gendered criminality.

Closing of the Gender Gap

  • Key Factors:

    • Increase in egalitarian values in Western societies has led to broader criminal opportunities for women.

    • Role Convergence Hypothesis: As women join the workforce and take on roles similar to men, female crime rates may simultaneously rise.

    • A pattern exists where male crime may be declining while female crime is on the rise.

Correlate #3: Socioeconomic Status (SES)

  • Observed Pattern: Higher crime rates are associated with individuals of low SES.

    • Crime rate patterns might be skewed by the challenges of using official UCR data.

    • Proposed Models:

    • Model 1: Linear relationship between SES and crime.

    • Model 2: Bimodal distribution of crime rates with respect to SES levels.

Empirical Relationship Complexity

  • The relationship between social class and crime is intricate and debated.

    • Contradictory Findings: Different studies using self-reporting yield varying results.

    • Measurement Variability: Different indicators of SES (income, education) correlate with differing crime outcomes.

    • Some crime types, like cybercrime, show association with higher SES, indicating complexity in the crime profile based on class.

  • General consensus: lower-class individuals may be overrepresented in the criminal justice system and recorded crime statistics.

Correlate #4: Race/Ethnicity

  • Observed Pattern: Notable racial and ethnic differences in crime rates exist.

    • Overrepresentation of Black and Latino/a/x Americans within the U.S. criminal justice system (CJS).

    • Similar overrepresentation is seen for Indigenous and Black Canadians in Canada.

Explanations for Racial Differences in Crime Rates

  1. Differential Offending Hypothesis: Claims that actual differences exist in offending behaviors across racial groups.

  2. Differential Treatment Hypothesis: Differences in CJS outcomes are influenced by systemic inequalities. Specifics include:

    • Increased police attention towards racial minorities.

    • Race may influence police discretion and authority.

    • Race plays a role in law-making and sentencing processes.

    • Neighborhoods with higher racial minority populations face more police scrutiny.

  3. Historical Legacy of Oppression: The effects of slavery and systemic racism enforce racial hierarchies, impacting crime rates.

    • The criminal justice system represents a continuity of punitive institutions designed to uphold racial hierarchies (e.g., Slavery, Jim Crow laws).

    • Notion of “institutional racism” as analyzed through critical race theory.

Trauma Transmission Model

  • Historical oppression can manifest in intergenerational psychological impacts:

    • Effects of colonialism and cultural genocide can lead to learned helplessness, low self-esteem, and potential hostility.

    • Traumatic memories can be inherited, leading to predispositions towards PTSD and cycles of violence.

    • It is often invoked to explain so-called “victimless” crimes, such as substance abuse.

Correlate #5: Location

  • Observed Pattern: Crime rates vary across geographic regions.

  • Historical data from UCR indicates that urban areas have higher crime rates, which tends to increase as community size grows.

    • Recent Canadian data confront this narrative, suggesting community characteristics may significantly influence crime rates.

    • Increased police oversight is noted in neighborhoods identified as “high-risk.”

Intersectionality

  • Definition: Intersectionality represents the complex interplay between age, gender, SES, and race, leading to unique outcomes and experiences within the CJS.

    • Focuses on cumulative disadvantages in the CJS, highlighting the connections between identity and social power.

    • Crucial for critical criminologists, emphasizing how multiple identities intersect and affect individuals' interactions with crime and justice.

Next Lecture Preview

  • Lecture 5 Topics:

    • Youth crime and justice

    • “Youthful” deviance and its implications

    • The Youth Criminal Justice Act (YCJA)

    • Justice approaches for young offenders

  • Readings:

    • Cesaroni (2025)

    • Eizadirad (2024)