Study Notes on Art of Mesoamerica and North America

Chapter 41: Art of Mesoamerica and North America

Overview of Mesoamerican Culture

  • Latecomers

    • The Aztec are often viewed as synonymous with Mesoamerican culture; however, they were __ to that rich historical tradition.

    • They rose to prominence in the fifteenth century as a dominant military and social force in the Valley of Mexico, where modern-day Mexico City is located.

Aztec Political Structure

  • Triple Alliance

    • The Aztec began as a confederation of 3 cities, commonly referred to as the _.

    • This alliance enabled them to conquer a significant portion of Mesoamerica, extending from the northern Mexican desert through much of central Mexico.

Historical Context of Mesoamerica

  • Mesoamerica

    • The region was home to the first cities in the Americas, which developed more than two thousand years prior to the Aztecs with the rise of Teotihuacan and the sophisticated culture of the Classic Maya.

  • Mexica

    • The Mexica, the most powerful group within the Triple Alliance, eventually gave their name to Mexico.

    • Their capital, Tenochtitlán, was one of the largest Mesoamerican cities and became the Spanish capital after the defeat of the Triple Alliance in 1521.

Spanish Colonization

  • Archaeologists

    • For a long time, much of what __ understood about Teotihuacan came from the Aztec interpretation of that city and its history.

  • Cuba

    • Two years following the landing of a small Spanish army from _ led by Hernán Cortés on the Gulf of Mexico, much of Mesoamerica came under Spanish rule, becoming a colony named "New Spain" to represent its significant role in the burgeoning Spanish Empire.

  • European Influence

    • Throughout the 16th century, a limited number of Spanish officials were available to construct and embellish churches, houses, and public buildings.

    • As a result, Mesoamerican laborers and artists began working in __ styles while attempting to retain and adapt their pre-colonial artistic practices.

Cultural Developments in Indigenous Communities

  • Native Artists in Colonial Cities

    • In Spanish-controlled cities within the empire (such as Mexico City, Guadalajara, and Mérida), __ artists were compelled to work on elaborate cathedrals.

    • In Indigenous towns, local leaders, artists, and architects often took the initiative, with minimal Spanish input, to create new churches and related artworks.

  • North American Cultures

    • Cultures in North America developed sophisticated lifestyles in towns and villages much __ than the large cities of Mesoamerica.

  • Persecution and Resilience

    • Despite ____ endured from European settlers, Native Americans exhibited remarkable creativity in artistic adaptation and innovation, alongside a resurgence in traditional media and forms.

Central Features of the Aztec Empire

  • Center of the Aztec Empire

    • The heart of the Aztec Empire was the densely populated city of Tenochtitlán (present-day Mexico City).

  • Characteristics of Tenochtitlán

    • Tenochtitlán was renowned for its monumental religious structures and lively markets.

    • It was a __ city, founded in the early fourteenth century on reclaimed land from a lake.

  • Wealth and Culture

    • Other significant cities in the region, particularly the allied cities of Texcoco and Tlacopan, were important centers of art, commerce, and political influence, but Tenochtitlán excelled in both _ and __.

Artistic Contributions of the Aztecs

  • Pantheon Representation

    • The Aztec capital supported numerous artists who drew upon earlier Mesoamerican forms, creating depictions of its _ of gods and rulers in a painted and sculpted style that was both innovative and refined.

  • Planners and Builders

    • The Aztecs were also esteemed urban and , inheriting influences from earlier Mesoamerican civilizations.

Templo Mayor

  • Defining Structure

    • At the temple's center rear lies the _, or Great Temple, serving as the focal point for the most sacred rituals conducted by the Aztecs.

  • Central Axis

    • The _, formed by three central buildings, was surrounded by additional structures dedicated to other deities, sites for displaying trophy heads, and areas for military or religious initiation ceremonies.

  • Huitzilopochtli

    • The location of the Templo Mayor was reportedly designated by the Aztec and god Huitzilopochtli, who had indicated that they would establish their empire where they discovered an eagle with a snake in its mouth perched on a cactus.

  • Sacred Offerings

    • With each , sacred offerings and monumental sculptures were added around the temple's vicinity.

  • Sacrificial Practices

    • Great Aztec myths highlight the essential role of and emphasize the significance of their central deities.

  • Life and Death Interconnection

    • This principal Aztec myth reflects the critical relationship of and in Aztec and broader Mesoamerican conceptualizations.

  • Cycles of Existence

    • In Aztec ideology, leading to death is an integral part of the natural cycles of the earth that support existence.

  • Annual Reenactments

    • Annually, the narrative of Huitzilopochtli's _ was dramatized for large audiences at the Templo Mayor.

  • Perishable Representations

    • Notably, none of the temple's sculptures contained direct imagery of Huitzilopochtli, who, according to Spanish friars, was primarily represented in _ materials, like amaranth grain dough.

Iconography and Sculpture

  • High Relief

    • Refers to raised forms projecting significantly from a flat background.

  • Coyolxauhqui Monuments

    • During festivals honoring Huitzilopochtli, priests would perform ritual sacrifices and roll the bodies of victims down the southern staircase to the plaza floor, where they landed near representations of the goddess Coyolxauhqui.

    • The presence of Coyolxauhqui monuments was so vital that the Aztecs carved fresh versions to place at the foot of the staircase with each __ of the temple.

  • Atlantids

    • Refer to monumental figures that support roofs or other architectural elements.

  • Influences from Teotihuacan

    • In the sculpture of Coatlicue, adherence to the original rectangular form of the stone block reflects artistic practices traceable back to _, where large sculptures of female deities were treated similarly.

  • Three-Dimensional Characteristics

    • Unlike the earlier sculptures, this figure of Coatlicue demonstrated pronounced ___ features, such as a lengthy necklace draping down her chest.

  • Coatlicue’s Identity

    • Coatlicue translates to "She of the Skirt," linking her identity to the serpents woven throughout the figure's skirt.

Monolithic Discoveries

  • Tlatecuhtli Monolith

    • This monolith, unearthed at the base of the Templo Mayor (situated between the north and south stairways of the temple) in 2006, depicts _, a ferocious earth goddess, larger than the adjacent Coyolxauhqui Stone.

  • Contoured Depiction

    • The goddess is portrayed in a _ position as if confined by the stone block.

  • Earth Goddess Representation

    • The Aztec interpretation of Tlatecuhtli as an __ goddess helps elucidate the monolith's positioning, which is flat on the plaza floor.

  • Calendar Stone

    • Another significant monument potentially situated near the Templo Mayor is the ___ Stone, also recognized as the Aztec Sun Stone.

Glyphs and Calendar

  • Definition of Glyph

    • A glyph is a singular symbolic figure or character in a hieroglyphic writing system.

  • Basalt Composition

    • The Calendar Stone, carved from a massive basalt block measuring nearly 12 feet in diameter, incorporates glyphs representing all the days of the Aztec ritual calendar.

  • Destruction Dates

    • The surrounding four squares on the stone indicate the dates of the previous world destructions.

  • Fifth Creation

    • This stone and various Aztec documents indicate that the world we inhabit is the god's _ creation.

  • Central Glyphic Image

    • At the ___ of the Calendar Stone, there is a substantial glyph denoting the number-day sequence known as "4-Movement," believed to be the day of the foretold end of the current era (and human history).

  • Temporal Associations

    • Aztec deities possess intrinsic links to the flow of , with each god or goddess affiliated with specific days or other temporal periods in the sacred calendar.

Codices and Indigenous Art

  • Screenfold Book Structure

    • This method of book-binding integrates pages that are sewn together at their sides, forming an accordion-like format.

  • Codices

    • Refers to handwritten bound volumes made in screenfold design during the pre-Columbian era; they are generally crafted from either paper or .

  • Fragility of Early Codices

    • The earliest codices were made from __ materials, resulting in a limited number of extant examples surviving from the three centuries preceding the Spanish arrival.

  • Vellum

    • Represents a writing medium originally fabricated from calfskin.

  • Borgia Codex

    • This divinatory almanac, named after the _ (the Renaissance family who owned it), features squares filled with distinct glyphs representing daily names across its pages.

Spanish Conquest and Cultural Impacts

  • Pectoral Jewelry

    • Defines an ornament or armor piece worn across the chest.

  • Ruthless Destruction

    • The Spanish eradication of Tenochtitlán was so __ and comprehensive that many historians speculated that Díaz del Castillo's accounts were exaggerated.

  • Perception of Indigenous Art

    • To Europeans, the ___ cultures and their art appeared both astounding and surprising.

  • Prejudice in Understanding

    • This sense of awe was compounded by misconceptions and prejudices against native spiritual traditions.

  • Economic Motivation

    • Spanish colonization of the Americas, similar to other European colonial ventures globally, was often driven by _ interests.

  • Power Dynamics

    • Subsequently, the Spanish established one of the most significant colonial landmarks in the Americas, the Metropolitan Cathedral in Mexico City, constructed atop the former location of the Templo Mayor.

    • Designed by prominent Spanish architect Claudio de Arcienaga, this church aimed to rival esteemed churches in Spain, serving as a monument to Spanish _ and _.

  • Christian Monasteries

    • From 1540 to 1560, native artisans and stonemasons produced a considerable number of monastic edifices.

  • Plateresque Architecture

    • Refers to a Spanish late Gothic and early Renaissance architectural style characterized by low-relief carving that displays intricate surface detail reminiscent of precious metalwork.

  • Corinthian Capitals

    • Denotes a classical architectural order identified by slender, fluted columns and elaborate capitals decorated with ornate leaves and scrolls.

  • Volute Design

    • Recognizes a decorative form presenting coiled scroll shapes.

  • Adapting Artistic Traditions

    • Many Indigenous artists chose to _ their ancient customs in exchange for legal rights conferred by the Spanish monks through their church constructions.

Cultural Resilience and Preservation

  • Colonization Effects

    • Further _ by Spaniards did not promptly follow their exploratory expeditions into the United States, but immense disease and disruption swept through the native populations introduced by Europeans.

  • Pueblo People

    • Present-day southwestern United States, the ___ communities in New Mexico and nearby areas sustained and furthered many of their traditional religious practices and festivals despite extensive Spanish conversion efforts during the 17th century.

  • Kachina Concept

    • In Pueblo culture, Kachina refers to both a divine ancestral or nature spirit and the impersonators who don specific masks and costumes for kachina ceremonies.

    • Kachina dolls are model representations of the dancer costumes, utilized for teaching young women the various spirit identities.

  • Performer Representation

    • This small-scale sculpture, also designated as a kachina, encapsulates both a specific kachina spirit and a masked ____.

  • Ceremonial Kiva

    • A Kiva in Pueblo culture signifies a subterranean ceremonial space shaped in a circle, serving as the principal ritual venue for significant male societies.

  • Sipapu Symbolism

    • A small sandpit located near the center of the kiva floor is believed by the Pueblo to represent where ancestors traversed from the underworld to this world.

  • Navajo Identity

    • The Diné, also known as the __, migrated to the Southwest around 1200 CE from their Alaskan homeland.

  • Artistic Practice of Diné

    • Known for their complex __ artworks, which involve using varied colored sands applied to the floor during ceremonies by healers.

  • Hozho Concept

    • The term "hozhó" denotes beauty and harmony, applied to organized artworks and flourishing health among individuals.

  • Slip Technique

    • Involves applying a layer of fine clay or glaze to ceramics pre-firing.

  • Importance of Shape

    • The mastery of vessel form, exemplified in María Martínez's clear and balanced silhouettes, highlights the significance of __ within Pueblo pottery traditions.