Global Environmental Challenges: Energy

Global Environmental Challenges: Energy

Introduction

• Dr. Catherine Mottram (catherine.mottram@port.ac.uk)

• The core challenge is climate change, and the proposed solution is a green energy transition.

Learning Objectives

• Understand current energy production methods in the UK and globally.

• Understand opportunities and challenges in reaching net-zero emissions by 2050.

• Develop critical thinking skills regarding the energy transition.

Climate Change

• Past atmospheric CO2 levels, reconstructed using geological proxies, have been much higher than today (Retallack and Conde, 2020; Rae et al., 2021).

• However, recent geological timescales show that current atmospheric CO2 concentrations are higher than at any time during the last ~800,000 years due to anthropogenic influence since the industrial revolution.

CO2 Emissions

• There has been a drastic change in CO2 emissions since the industrial revolution, particularly from lower/middle-income countries.

• Upper-middle-income countries contribute disproportionately to climate change.

• In the new COP29 deal, there will be $300 billion$ a year in climate finance to help developing countries.

CO2 Emissions by Country

• China, the United States, and India are significant contributors to annual CO2 emissions.

• Trends in CO2 emissions vary across countries like China, USA, Germany, Brazil, and the United Kingdom.

• Figure 19: Annual territorial greenhouse gas emissions per person: G20 countries

Two Key Trends

• High GDP countries: CO2 emissions are too high.

• Lower GDP countries: There is energy poverty.

Access to Electricity

• Access to electricity is defined as having enough power for basic lighting and charging a phone for 4 hours.

• There have been drastic changes in access to electricity in some countries (e.g., India).

CO2 Emissions by Fuel

• Coal is the most polluting fossil fuel, followed by oil and gas.

Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Sector (2016)

• Energy: $73.2\%$

  • Energy use in Industry: $24.2\%$

  • Energy use in buildings: $17.5\%$

  • Transport: $16.2\%$

    • Road Transport: $11.9\%$

  • Fugitive emissions from energy production: $5.8\%$

• Agriculture, Forestry & Land Use: $18.4\%$

• Industry: $5.2\%$

• Waste: $3.2\%$

Sources of Energy

• Solar nuclear fusion

• The pull of gravity

• Nuclear fission reactions

• Earth’s internal energy

• Energy in chemical bonds (Marshak, Portrait of a Planet)

Petroleum

• Petroleum is formed through fractional distillation.

• Various products are derived from crude oil with different numbers of carbons in the polymer chain. Products include:

  • Natural gas (C1 to C4)

  • Gasoline

  • Naphtha

  • Paraffin

  • Diesel

  • Fuel oil

  • Lubricating oil

  • Bitumen

Plastics Consumption in the EU27+3

• Packaging: $33.5\%$

• Building & Construction: $23.9\%$

• Electrical & Electronics: $7.5\%$

• Automotive: $9.7\%$

• Houseware, Leisure & Sports: $4.9\%$

• Agriculture, Farming & Gardening: $4.4\%$

• Others: $16.1\%$

Petrochemical Products and Emissions

• Petrochemical products are derived from various feedstocks, including coal and heavy gas oil.

• Annual emissions from the plastic lifecycle vary based on the feedstock:

  • Heavy Gas Oil: $0.86$ Gt CO2e

  • Coal Plants: $1.34$ Gt CO2e, $2.80$ Gt CO2e

EU27+UK Plastics Waste Exports in 2020

• World plastics production: ~$0.44$ Mt.

• The destinations for plastics waste exports include Turkey, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Hong-Kong.

Petroleum Demand by Product (1990 vs. 2022)

• 1990:

  • Fuel oil: $20\%$

  • Petrol: $35\%$

  • Jet fuel: $17\%$

  • Gas oil: $11\%$

• 2022:

  • Fuel oil: $1\%$

  • Petrol: $19\%$

  • Jet fuel: $15\%$

  • Gas oil: $8\%$

  • Road diesel: $39\%$

Hydrocarbons

• Fuel = chemical that can be burnt to provide energy

• High energy density – large amounts of energy per unit weight

• Hydrocarbons burn – e.g. gasoline burning reaction $2C<em>8H</em>{18} + 25O<em>2 \rightarrow 16CO</em>2 +18H_2O$ + heat and light

• Hydrocarbon: A chain-like or ring-like molecule made of hydrogen and carbon atoms; petroleum and natural gas are hydrocarbons.

Hydrocarbon Generation

• Hydrocarbon generation: A process in which oil shale warms to temperatures of greater than about $90°C$ so kerogen molecules transform into oil and natural gas molecules (Marshak, Portrait of a Planet).

Oil & Gas Formation

• Staggeringly complex processes include decomposition, recombination, maturation, and migration.

• Approximately $85\%$ of British homes rely on gas.

Kerogen

• Polymeric organic material.

• Generates hydrocarbon with increasing pressure and temperature.

• Kerogen produces oil.

Oil and Gas Window

• Kerogen are the waxy molecules that form from shale when heated up to ~$100°C$.

• When heated to the oil window, the kerogen changes molecular composition to form oils (e.g $C<em>7H</em>8$) and gas at higher temperatures (e.g. $CH_4$).

Creation of an Oil Reserve

• Dependent on correct timing and geological structures (Marshak, Portrait of a Planet).

• After a source rock enters the oil window, kerogen is converted to oil.

• The oil is buoyant and begins to seep upward.

Traps

• Anticline trap: oil and gas rises to the crest of the fold.

• Fault trap: oil and gas collect in the tilted strata adjacent to the fault.

• Salt-dome traps are formed when deeply buried salt flows like a plastic.

North Sea Oil and Gas Fields

• Map of oil and gas fields, including new discoveries since 2000.

Per Capita CO2 Emissions by Fuel Type (2021)

• Data on per capita CO2 emissions from coal, oil, gas, flaring, cement, and other industry for various countries.

• Some countries are still using coal as the main form of fuel, e.g., Australia, South Africa, China.

UK Energy Production

• Wind was the second-largest source of electricity in 2022, generating $26.8\%$. Gas made up $38.5\%$.

• The UK has cut emissions by ~$40\%$ since 1990.

UK Greenhouse Gas Emissions

• Success stories in emission cuts: energy supply, waste management.

• Needs improvement: transport, residential.

Carbon Footprint of Travel (2022)

• The carbon footprint of travel is measured in grams of carbon dioxide-equivalents per passenger kilometer.

• Includes data for domestic flight, long-haul flight, diesel car, petrol car, etc.

Alternatives to Fossil Fuels

• Biofuels?

• Hydrogen?

• Synthetic fuels?

• Electric vehicles

Electric Cars

• Number of electric cars is small but growing.

• Electric cars' batteries requires a range of critical minerals compared to gas cars.

• A Civic's engine weighs around $184$ kg, while a Chevy Bolt's motor only weighs $76$ kg.

Energy Efficiency

• UK and EU regulations encourage energy-efficient homes and appliances.

• Newer dwellings have higher median energy efficiency scores.

UK Government Initiatives for Energy Efficiency

• Initiatives to save energy in homes, including heat pump suitability checks and boiler upgrade schemes.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Residential Sector (UK, 1990-2021)

• Breakdown of emissions by carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and F gases.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Waste Management (UK, 1990-2021)

• Improvement due to landfill standards, removal of biodegradable waste, and use of landfill gas for energy.

Clean Fuels for Cooking

• Access to clean fuels or technologies reduces exposure to indoor air pollutants.

Clean Cooking Benefits

• Saves households time and money, reduces deforestation, creates jobs, reduces greenhouse gas emissions, and empowers women.

Paris Agreement

Key Points:

• Limiting global warming to $1.5°C$ requires rapid and sustained reductions in global greenhouse gas emissions, including reducing global carbon dioxide emissions by 45 % by 2030 and to net-zero emissions around 2050.

Glasgow Climate Pact (COP26) and COP27

Key Outcomes:

• Phase down/Phase out

• Limiting Global warming to $1.5°C$

• Halting Deforestation

The Energy Transition

• Shift towards net-zero emissions.

What is Net Zero?

• Reducing carbon emissions as much as possible and offsetting unavoidable residual CO2 as a last resort.

Flexible Zero-Carbon Mobility

• Zero-emissions vehicles and walkable cities with clean air.

Role of Oil and Gas in the Energy Transition

• Continued role, but with reducing demand.

Energy Transition Timeline

Key Milestones:

• Coal peaked in 2014

• Oil peaks in 2023

• Gas overtakes oil in 2023

Reducing Emissions from Fossil Production

• Replace gas power stations with wind

• Carbon capture storage

• Hydrogen

• CO2 injection

Hydrogen as a Clean Alternative

• Can be burnt and does not produce CO2.

• Blue hydrogen produces carbon as a by-product.

Types of Hydrogen Production

• Green hydrogen: Uses clean electricity from renewable energy to electrolyze water.

• Blue hydrogen: Produced from natural gas with carbon capture and storage (CCS).

• Grey hydrogen: Created from natural gas without capturing greenhouse gases.

Hydrogen Energy Storage System

• Hydrogen production (electrolyzer).

• Hydrogen storage.

• Combustion of hydrogen (fuel cell).

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)

• CO2 capture from industrial plants.

• Transport of liquid CO2 by pipeline or ship.

• Storage by injecting CO2 deep underground.

Extinction Rebellion

• Advocacy for climate action.

Renewable Energy Sources Generating Electricity in the EU (2019)

• Hydro: $35\%$

• Wind: $35\%$

• Solid biofuels: $9\%$

• Solar: $8\%$

  Global Distribution of Renewables

  • Very different from fossil fuels with focus on natural resources and engineering capabilities

Types of Dams

*Embankment
*Gravity
*.Arch
*Buttress

Summary

• Climate change is the biggest challenge facing society.

• Tackling climate change is a complex issue which involves complex international cooperation.

• Worldwide energy production is still dominated by fossil fuels, particularly in economically less wealthy countries.

• Alternatives to fossil fuels include wind energy, solar, hydro, and hydrogen.

• Transport and waste management are critical for reducing carbon emissions.

• Nuclear power is an important alternative for energy production.

Further Reading

• The Global Casino, Chapter 18, Energy Production

• Marshak, Portrait of a planet: Chapter 14

• Our World in Data website: https://ourworldindata.org/

• BBC News: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/58160547

• UK Government Energy Brief 2023:
  https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/64f1bcdc9ee0f2000fb7bd8b/UKEnergyinBrief2023.pdf

• UK government report: Final greenhouse gas emissions 1990-2021
  https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/final-uk-greenhouse-gas-emissions-national-statistics-1990-to-2021

• Carrara S. et al., Raw materials demand for wind and solar PV technologies in the transition towards a decarbonized energy system

• Metals and Mining Practice
  http://dln.jaipuria.ac.in:8080/jspui/bitstream/123456789/14344/1/The-raw-materials-challenge.pdf

• Fossil Fuels in Transition Report: Energy Transition Committee: Fossil Fuels in Transition: Committing to the phase-down of all fossil fuels Report 2023

• Plastic and Climate report: www.ciel.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Plastic-and-Climate-FINAL-2019.pdf