PSYC 1010 TEST 2 NOTES -

Learning

The process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviours

Associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (operant conditioning)

Stimulus

Any event or situation that evokes a response

Respondent behaviour

Behaviour that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Operant behaviours

Behaviour that operates on the environment, producing a consequence

Cognitive learning

The acquisition of mental information whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

Classical conditioning

A type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov's classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behaviour (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food)

Behaviourism

The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behaviour without reference to mental processes

Neutral stimulus (NS)

In classical conditioning a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

Unconditioned response (UR)

In classical conditioning an unlearned naturally occurring response (such as salvation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US-such as food in the mouth)

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

In classical conditioning a stimulus that unconditionally, naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response (UR)

Conditioned response (CR)

In classical conditioning a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned stimulus)

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

In classical conditioning an originally neutral stimulus that after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US) comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)

Acquisition

In classical conditioning the initial stage when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response

Higher order conditioning

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS)

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance after a pause of an extinguished conditioned response

Generalization

The tendency once a response has been conditioned for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Discrimination

(1) classical - the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus (2) operant - ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced

Learn

The process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviours

Associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimulus (classical) or a response and its consequence (operant

Stimuli

Any event or situation that evokes a response

Respondent behaviour

A symmetrical bell shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fever and fewer near the extremes

Operant conditioning

A type of learning in which a behaviour becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely or recur if followed by a punisher

Operant behaviour

Behaviour that operates on the environment producing a consequence

Reinforcement

In operant conditioning any events that strengthens the behaviour it follows

Shaping

In operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behaviour toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behaviour

Positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviours by presenting a pleasurable stimulus. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that when presented after a response strengthens the response

Negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviours by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that when removed after a response strengthens the response

Primary reinforcers

An innately reinforcing stimulus such as one that satisfies a biological need

Conditioned reinforcers

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

Reinforcement schedules

A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

Continuous reinforcement

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedules

Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction that does continuous reinforcement

Fixed ratio schedules

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Variable ratio schedules

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Fixed interval schedules

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Variable interval schedules

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Punishment

An event that tends to decrease the behaviour that it follows

Learning

The process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviours

Preparedness

A biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value

Instinctive drift

The tendency of learned behaviour to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

Latent learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Observational learning

Learning by observing others

Modeling

The process of observing and imitating a specific behaviour

Mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so

Prosocial behaviours

Positive, constructive, helpful behaviour

Social psychologist

The scientific study of how we think about, influence and relate to one another

Attribution theory

The theory that we explain someone's behaviour by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition

Fundamental attribution error

The tendency when analyzing others behaviour to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

Attitudes

Feelings, often influenced by our beliefs that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people and events

Foot in the door phenomenon

The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

Peripheral route persuasion

Occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speakers attractiveness

Central route persuasion

Occurs when interested peoples thinking is influenced by considering evidence and arguments

Norms

Understood rules for accepted and expected behavior (proper)

Conformity

Adjusting our behaviour or thinking to coincide with a group standard

Normative social influence

Influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

Informational social influence

Influence resulting from a person's willingness to accept others opinions about reality

Social loafing

The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

Deindividuation

The loss of self awareness and self restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

Group think

The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

Group polarization

The enhancement of a groups prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

Prejudice

An unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. Generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings and a predisposition to discriminatory action

Stereotypes

A generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

Discriminate

In classical conditioning the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus - in operant the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced

Just world phenomenon

The tendency for people to believe that the world is just and people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

Ingroup

“Us” people with whom we share a common identity

Outgroup

“Them” those perceived as different or apart from out ingroup

Ingroup bias

The tendency to favour our own group

Aggression

Any physical or verbal behaviour intended to harm someone physically or emotionally

Mere exposure effect

The tendency for repeated exposure to novel stimuli to increase our liking of them

Passionate love

An aroused state of intense positive absorption in another usually present at the beginning of a romantic relationship

Companionate love

The deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

Equity

A condition in which people receive from s relationship in proportion to what they give to it

Self disclosure

The act of revealing intimate aspects of ourselves to others

Altruism

Unselfish regard for the welfare of others

Bystander effect

The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

Social exchange theory

The theory that our social behaviour is an exchange process the aim of which is to maximise benefits and minimize costs

Reciprocity norm

An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

Social responsibility norm

An expectation that people will help those needed their help

Conflict

A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals or ideas

Social traps

A situation in which the conflicting parties by each pursuing their self interest rather than the good of the group become caught in mutually destructive behaviour

Mirror image perceptions

Mutual views often held by conflicting parties as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive

Self fulfilling prophecies

A belief that leads to its own fulfillment

Superordinate goals

Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

Consciousness

Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment

Hypnosis

A social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts or behaviours will spontaneously occur

Cognitive neuroscience

The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory and language)

Selective attention

Focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

Inattentional blindness

Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

Change blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment a form of inattentional blindness

Dual processing

The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

Blindsight

A condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

Parallel processing

Processing many aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously

Sequential processing

Processing one aspect of a stimulus or problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems

Sleep

A periodic, natural loss of consciousness - as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

Circadian rhythm

Our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24 hour cycle

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur

Alpha waves

The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed awake state

Hallucinations

False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

Delta waves

The large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

A pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm - in response to light the, SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness

Insomnia

Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder by uncontrollable sleep attacks - the sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep often at inopportune times

Sleep apnea

A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

Night terrors

A sleep disorder characterised by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares night terrors occur during N3 sleep within 2 or 3 hours of falling asleep and are seldom remembered

Dreams

A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind

Manifest content

According to freud, the symbolic remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent or hidden content

Latent content

According to freud the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content)

REM rebound

The tendency for REm sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

Psychoactive drugs

A chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods

Substance use disorder

A disorder characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and or physical risk

Depressants

Drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

Alcohol use disorder

Alcohol use marker by tolerance, withdrawal and a drive to continue problematic use

Barbiturate

Drugs that depress central nervous system activity reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement

Opiates

Opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin depress neural activity; temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

Stimulant

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

Amphetamines

Drugs (such as methamphetamine) that stimulate neural activity causing accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes

Nicotine

A stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco products

Cocaine

A powerful and addictive stimulant derived from the coca plant; produced temporarily increased alertness and euphoria

Methamphetamine

A powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system with accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes over time and reduces baseline dopamine levels

Ecstasy

A synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy but with short term health risks and longer term harm to serotonin producing neurons and to mood and cognition

Hallucinogens

Psychedelic drugs such as LSD that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

Near death experience

An altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death

THC

The major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects including mild hallucinations

Biological psychologists

The scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to change especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Neurons

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Cell body

The part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cells life support center

Dendrite

A neurons often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages conducting impulses toward the cell body

Axon

The segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Myelin sheath

A fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

Glial cells

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons they also play a role in learning, thinking and memory

Action potential

A neural impulse a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Refractory period

A brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired

All or none response

A neuron's reaction of either firing or not firing

Synapse

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons

Reuptake

A neurotransmitter reabsorption by the sending neuron

Endorphins

Natural, opiate like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

Agonist

A molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action

Antagonists

A molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitters actions

Nervous system

The body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

Central nervous system

The brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

Nerves

Bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands and sensory organs

Sensory neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the body's tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Motor neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Somatic nervous system

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the bodys skeletal muscles

Autonomic nervous system

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs

Sympathetic nervous system

The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy

Parasympathetic nervous system

The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

Reflexes

A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk reflex

Endocrine system

The body's slow chemical communication system; glands and fat tissue that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Hormones

Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues

Adrenal glands

A pair of endocrine glands that sits just above the kidneys and secretes hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress

Pituitary gland

The endocrine systems most influential gland - regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

Lesion

Tissue destruction, a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

EEG (electroencephalogram)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity across the brain's surface

MEG (magnetoencephalography)

A brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brains natural electrical activity

PET (positron emission tomography)

A technique for detecting brain activity that displays where radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generated images of soft tissue

Brainstem

The oldest part and central core of the brain beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

Medulla

The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

Thalamus

The brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmis replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Reticular

A nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus; filters information and plays an important role in controlling arousal

Formation

A nerve network extending from the spinal cord right up through the thalamus

Cerebellum

The little brain at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance and enabling nonverbal learning and memory

Limbic system

Neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres associated with emotions and drives

Amygdala

Two lima bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion

Hypothalamus

A neural structure in the limbic system lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking), helps govern the endocrine system and is linked to emotion and reward

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories or facts and events for storage

Cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

Frontal lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plants and judgements

Parietal lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

Occipital lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

Temporal lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

Motor cortex

A cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

Somatosensory cortex

A cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Association areas

Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary or sensory functions rather they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking and speaking

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Corpus callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Split brain

A condition resulting from surgery that separates the brains two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them