UNIT 3: CONFLICT & AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE - 1754 TO 1800
Impact of Revolutionary Ideals on American Society and Beyond
Introduction
Revolutionary ideals shaped and sustained the American Revolution.
These ideals had profound effects not only on American society but also on society in parts of Europe and the Caribbean.
Widespread Adoption of Ideas
The American victory in the Revolutionary War was secured through the widespread adoption of powerful ideas.
Ideas have consequences, sometimes unforeseen.
Thomas Jefferson emphasized the idea that "all men are created equal" in the Declaration of Independence.
This phrase implies self-evidence, meaning belief requires merely consciousness and basic reasoning abilities.
Contradictions and Social Structures
Post-revolution, many began questioning this idea of equality in light of existing social structures.
Example 1: Slavery and Revolutionary Ideals
Revolutionary ideals led to increased awareness of slavery's inequalities.
Many delegates of the Continental Congress, including Thomas Jefferson, were slave owners.
They were aware of the contradiction between advocating liberty for all and enslaving people.
Dunmore's Proclamation during the Revolutionary War made Southern leaders anxious.
It promised freedom to any enslaved or indentured person who fought for the British.
This stoked fears of rebellion among Southern colonial leaders, threatening their social hierarchy and wealth.
Jefferson's indictment against slavery was removed from the Declaration of Independence due to fears of alienating Southern colonies.
After the war:
Most state constitutions allowed slavery to persist, with Vermont abolishing it and Pennsylvania mandating gradual emancipation.
The phrase "all men are created equal" led many black people to assume it included them, causing tension over the institution of slavery.
However, elite planters kept slavery entrenched to maintain status and wealth.
Thousands of enslaved blacks fled north during the war, joining free black communities in port cities.
Revolutionary ideals inspired calls for abolition, mostly from Northern groups, but it took nearly a century before slavery was fully abolished.
Example 2: Calls for Political Democracy
The American Revolution was led by elite white men who desired freedom from British hierarchy.
Their ideas trickled down, encouraging common people to want an end to the existing American social hierarchy.
Elections became debates on expanding democracy, particularly regarding voting rights.
Most state constitutions imposed property requirements on voting, leading to calls for their removal.
Like abolition of slavery, expanding voting rights took decades to fulfill.
Impact on Women
Women played significant roles in securing victory in the American Revolution.
Farm wives managed farms while husbands fought, and some women became camp followers or disguised themselves as men to fight.
Women believed that equality fought for in the revolution extended to them, a common assumption.
Abigail Adams advocated for women's inclusion in newly defined liberty with the quote, "Remember the ladies," warning of rebellion if overlooked.
Despite this, equality did not extend to women post-revolution, especially in voting rights.
Republican Motherhood:
Benjamin Rush emphasized the idea that women could contribute politically by educating sons on liberty and governance.
This encouraged women's education but reinforced their exclusion from political equality.
Women's autonomy challenges were viewed as threats to men's roles as heads of households.
Overview of Post-American Revolution Governance
After the American Revolution was won, the focus shifted towards establishing new state and federal governments in the United States.
State Constitutions
Declaration of Independence (1776) led to each state drafting and ratifying new constitutions.
State governments played a crucial role during the Revolution, establishing their authority due to the lack of central government apart from the weak Continental Congress.
Common Features of State Constitutions
Virginia's Constitution
Included a bill of rights and served as a loose template for other state constitutions.
Key rights protected:
Freedom of the press
Free elections
Right to form militias
Right to a speedy trial
Rejection of Nobility
Common language across states banned titles of nobility and social symbols of aristocracy, reflecting Enlightenment ideals against hereditary power.
Voting Rights Limitation
Franchise was generally limited to white male property owners.
Property requirements explained:
Voting akin to stock ownership in a company provides investors with a vested interest in governance; landowners were seen as having a stake in societal outcomes.
Slavery
State constitutions largely failed to address slavery, except Vermont. Some states, like Pennsylvania, initiated gradual emancipation measures.
Legislative Power Concentration
Most state constitutions concentrated power in the legislature to avoid perceived tyranny from a strong executive.
Bicameral legislature became common to further decentralize power.
Federal Government Formation
Articles of Confederation (1777)
Drafted by the Continental Congress; it was the first constitution governing the United States but was ineffective.
Reflected states' fears of a centralized executive power resulting in a weak federal government.
In the early New Republic, state governments held most political power.
Achievements Under Articles
Northwest Ordinance of 1787
Organized and regulated the western territory acquired from the Treaty of Paris.
Key features:
Reserved land for schools
Banned slavery in the territory
Provided rules for territories to become states.
Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation
The federal structure had significant deficiencies, leading to conflicts and challenges in governance.
Key Issues Identified
International Trade Challenges
Great Britain cutoff trade with the U.S.
Spain blocked access to the Mississippi River.
Attacks by pirates from North Africa on U.S. merchant ships.
Inability of the federal government to protect or rectify these issues.
Federal Financial Issues
Congress inability to pay war debts; it relied on voluntary state contribution because it lacked taxing power.
An attempt in 1782 for a uniform 5% tax on imports failed due to lack of unanimous state support.
Interstate Commerce Disputes
States imposed tariffs on goods creating competition rather than cooperation.
Federal government had no authority to regulate interstate commerce.
Foreign Relations Problems
British forces continued occupying forts in the U.S.
Armed conflicts with Native Americans encouraged by Britain.
Federal government lacked authority to act or raise an army in response.
Internal Unrest: Shays' Rebellion
Led by Daniel Shays, a group of farmers in Massachusetts revolted due to discontent over unpaid war debts and economic hardship.
They attacked courthouses and a federal arsenal.
Massachusetts militia suppressed the rebellion, highlighting the Articles' inability to maintain order or respond to civil unrest.
Resulted in widespread fear of potential further uprisings and the clear necessity for a new constitution.
The US Constitution
Background on Constitutional Convention
Shea's Rebellion illustrated the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, which led to calls for a new Constitution.
In 1787, 55 delegates met in Philadelphia for the Constitutional Convention.
The primary question was whether to revise the Articles of Confederation or draft a new Constitution.
Most delegates intended to revise, but a strong minority convinced them to pursue a new Constitution.
This process required extensive debates, negotiations, and compromises.
The Need for a New Constitution
The Articles created a weak federal government and strong state governments.
The challenge was to strengthen the federal government without establishing a tyrannical regime.
The solution involved three key principles:
Separation of Powers
Checks and Balances
Federalism
Separation of Powers
Prevented federal tyranny by dividing government responsibilities into three branches:
Legislative Branch (Congress) - responsible for making laws.
Executive Branch (President) - responsible for enforcing laws.
Judicial Branch (Supreme Court) - responsible for interpreting laws.
Checks and Balances
Each branch of government possesses powers that can check or balance the others to prevent dominance.
Examples of checks and balances included:
The President can veto legislation.
Congress can approve or disapprove appointments to the Supreme Court.
The Supreme Court can declare laws unconstitutional (known as judicial review), which although not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, was later established in an 1803 court decision.
Federalism
Federalism is defined as the sharing of power between federal and state governments.
Misconceptions exist about the term; it refers specifically to this distribution of power and not merely the federal government.
The Constitution specified that powers not granted to the federal government are reserved for the states, as stated in the 10th Amendment.
Example: States oversee elections; only the federal government can declare war.
There are also concurrent powers shared by both levels of government, such as taxation.
Key Compromises During the Constitutional Convention
Several key issues required compromise to finalize the Constitution:
Representation in Congress
Debate between two plans:
Virginia Plan: Representation based on state population.
New Jersey Plan: Equal representation for each state.
Resulted in the Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise):
Created a bicameral legislature with two houses:
House of Representatives: Representation by population (elected directly by the people).
Senate: Equal representation (two senators per state, initially elected by state legislators, changed by a 1913 amendment).
Election of the President
Debated whether the President should be elected by the populace, states, or Congress.
Resulted in the Electoral College system:
Each state selects electors equal to its number of congressional representatives, who then vote for the President.
Slavery
Two significant compromises were reached concerning slavery:
Three-Fifths Compromise: Determined that 3/5 of the enslaved population would be counted for representation in Congress.
Slave Trade Compromise: Stated that Congress could not interfere with the slave trade for 20 years after ratification, after which it would be abolished.
Ratification of the Constitution
The Constitution required ratification by nine out of 13 states to replace the Articles of Confederation.
A debate arose between:
Federalists: Advocated for ratification, comprised mainly of socially powerful individuals in cities.
Argued for a stronger federal government to ensure the republic's survival and prevent tyranny of the majority.
Prominent Federalists included Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison.
Published the Federalist Papers to argue in favor of the Constitution.
Anti-Federalists: Opposed ratification fearing that a strong federal government would lead to tyranny.
Concerned about the lack of a Bill of Rights to protect individual liberties, as state governments already had such provisions.
Federalists countered that checks and balances made a Bill of Rights unnecessary.
Ultimately, Federalist arguments prevailed, and by June 1788, enough states ratified the Constitution.
To appease Anti-Federalist fears, Federalists promised a Bill of Rights shortly after ratification.
Creating a Federal Government
Precedents Set by the Executive Branch
George Washington's Presidency
First president of the United States, elected unanimously by the electoral college
Only president to be unanimously elected in U.S. history
Established enduring practices and norms of the presidential office
Creation of a Presidential Cabinet
Washington established a cabinet to assist in executive decision-making
The Constitution does not mandate executive departments
Created four original departments:
State (Thomas Jefferson)
War (Henry Knox)
Treasury (Alexander Hamilton)
Justice (Edmund Randolph)
Appointments require Senate approval, showcasing checks and balances
Establishment of Two-Term Limit
Washington voluntarily stepped down after two terms (8 years)
The Constitution does not specify term limits for the presidency
His decision set a precedent for future presidents until the 22nd Amendment (1940)
Washington's Farewell Address
Urged national unity and warned against foreign alliances and political parties
Advised against entangling alliances that might lead to conflict
Warned about the dangers of political parties undermining national unity, foreshadowing future political divides
Formation of the Federal Judiciary
Judicial branch received the least attention in the Constitution
Congress passed the Judiciary Act of 1789
Created a three-tiered federal court system:
District Courts (13 across states; lowest level)
Courts of Appeals (three federal circuits; middle tier)
Supreme Court (highest authority; initially six justices)
Structure has largely endured since its establishment
Emergence of Political Parties
Context of Political Factions
Political parties (referred to as factions) emerged despite the founders' fears
Divisions rooted in ideological differences during the ratification debates:
Federalists: favored stronger federal government
Anti-Federalists: favored states' rights
Key Disagreements Leading to Party Formation
Economic Policy Disputes
Hamilton's proposal for a National Bank to stabilize the economy
Federal government to assume state debts incurred during the Revolutionary War
Opposition from Democratic-Republicans (e.g., Virginia) who viewed it as a federal overreach
Hamilton argued for its necessity under the Necessary and Proper Clause
Successful establishment of the bank led to economic growth
Liberty vs. Order Debate
Whiskey Rebellion of 1792-1794 as a case study
Tax on whiskey angered western farmers, leading to protests and violent resistance
Washington federalized militias to suppress the rebellion, showcasing federal authority
Resulted in split views; demonstrated federal capacity but also provoked fears of tyranny among Democratic-Republicans
Foreign Policy Disagreements
Debates over support for the French Revolution
Democratic-Republicans favored aiding France, Federalists opposed
Washington issued a Neutrality Proclamation to protect American interests
Opposition from Democratic-Republicans led to Jefferson's resignation from the cabinet
The Jay Treaty of 1794
Aimed to ease U.S.-British tensions
Criticized by Democratic-Republicans for failing to address crucial issues
Increased animosity between the political parties
Relationship Between Federal and State Governments
The Alien and Sedition Acts under President John Adams as a pivotal point
Allowed the imprisoning and deportation of immigrants criticizing government
Sedition Act made it illegal to criticize the government openly
Viewed by Democratic-Republicans as excessive federal control and violation of rights
Led to Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions rejecting the constitutionality of the acts and asserting state power to nullify federal laws
Development of American Identity
Post-revolutionary period saw the signs of a new national American identity.
Regional vs. National Identity:
Observations:
Americans of the time often identified more strongly with their regional identities (e.g., Georgian, Michigander) rather than a national identity.
Regional identity was a more powerful force than national identity.
The First Great Awakening:
This movement contributed to a common identity among colonists, but regional identity remained dominant.
The American Revolution created conditions for a stronger national identity, surpassing the Great Awakening.
The identity during this period was layered — composed of both national and regional identities, likened to "a juicy lasagna" or "an ogre with layers".
Key Features of American Identity
Central theme of emerging American identity: Liberty.
The Constitution’s preamble begins with “We the people,” emphasizing the collective identity rooted in liberty.
Americans were identified as a “free people.”
Illustrations of National Identity Around Liberty
Abolishment of Aristocracy:
After the Revolution, every state adopted new constitutions that mandated government by consent of the governed.
Titles of nobility and hereditary aristocracy were abolished reflecting a rejection of European social hierarchies.
Importance of Meritocracy:
The belief that success should be based on talent rather than family lineage.
Linked to the need for widespread education, positing an educated populace as essential for civic virtue.
Limitations of Liberty:
Not all populations benefited from meritocracy, especially women and people of color.
Women had no legal standing and were considered dependents, expected to contribute politically by raising virtuous sons (concept known as Republican motherhood).
Presence of Slavery:
Northern states moved towards emancipation; some constitutions banned slavery (e.g., Vermont) or provided gradual emancipation (e.g., Pennsylvania).
On the other hand, Southern states maintained slavery, which contradicted the principle of liberty, hindering the African American population's freedom.
Notable figures emerged within the black community:
Gowen Pamphlet: Formerly enslaved, became a minister leading one of America's early black Baptist congregations, showcasing how marginalized voices worked to establish their American identity.
Formation of mutual aid societies and educational institutions by free blacks in the North exemplified grassroots efforts for advancement despite ongoing marginalization.
Religious Toleration in Emerging American Identity
Colonial suspicions about church and state relations led to a significant push for religious toleration post-revolution.
Most new states established a separation between church and state:
Many states defunded state churches, allowing for freedom from government influence in religion.
Regional Variations:
Example: Massachusetts mandated church attendance while also emphasizing freedom of worship, reflecting its historical roots in the Congregational Church.
Artistic Representation of American Identity
Exploration of how art, literature, and architecture contributed to the national identity:
Art:
Charles Wilson Peale:
Painter of revolutionary leaders (e.g., Washington, Franklin, Jefferson) as Republican heroes.
Adopted neoclassical style, emphasizing order and harmony to glorify subjects.
Famous portrait: Washington at Princeton, celebrating Washington’s leadership.
John Trumbull:
Also a painter of historical scenes from the Revolution, notably the signing of the Declaration of Independence.
Romanticized depictions helped shape American identification with revolutionary moments.
Literature:
Hector St. John de Crevecoeur:
Considered one of the first American novelists.
His book, Letters from an American Farmer, depicted Americans as individuals with European roots and frontier opportunities, blending liberty ideals with stark realities of slavery.
Architecture:
The construction of the U.S. Capitol began in 1792, reflecting national identity:
Built in a federal style that melded neoclassical influences from Greek and Roman architecture.
Emphasized order and democracy, signaling a shift from colonial Georgian styles and a break from British cultural ties.