Peopling the Americas & Early Native Civilizations

First migration theory
- Earliest Americans believed to have crossed a temporary land bridge—\text{Beringia} —that connected present-day Siberia (Eurasia) with Alaska (North America) across the Bering Sea.
- Occurred during the last Ice Age when sea levels were lower, exposing the landmass.
- These "1st immigrants" gradually dispersed southward and eastward, populating the entire hemisphere.
- Archaeological, genetic, and linguistic evidence all converge on this trans-Bering route, though coastal‐migration hypotheses also exist (worth mentioning if it appears in later lectures).

Inca (Peru), Maya (Central America), and Aztec (Mexico) are highlighted as the most sophisticated early civilizations.
- Built elaborate cities with monumental architecture (pyramids, temples, road systems).
- Maintained far-flung commerce networks distributing goods such as obsidian, cacao, textiles, and precious metals.
- Excelled as mathematicians and astronomers, producing detailed calendars to time agriculture, ritual, and taxation.
- Practiced state-organized human sacrifice to appease or nourish their gods—an important religious and political act because it affirmed divine sanction of rulership.
- Of these, the Aztecs formed the only full nation-state in the North American vicinity (strict central government, codified tribute system).

Maize (corn) cultivation originated in Mexico and spread throughout Mesoamerica and South America, eventually diffusing northward.
- Enabled food surpluses, population growth, occupational specialization, and urbanization.
Irrigation systems were engineered to keep agricultural surpluses stable—especially in arid regions.
Development of Three-Sisters Farming—the synergistic planting of squash, maize, and beans—supported dense populations by:
- Maize acting as a trellis.
- Beans fixing nitrogen in the soil.
- Squash retaining moisture and suppressing weeds.
- Result: 3 crops mutually benefiting one another and boosting caloric yield per acre.

Peoples of the present-day U.S. Southwest (often grouped as Puebloans) adapted maize cultivation to desert climates.
- Lived in multistoried, terraced dwellings; term “pueblo” = “village” in Spanish.
- Utilized caves, cliffs, and adobe architecture for insulation.
- Social hierarchy and ceremonial life were less centralized than Mesoamerican empires but still complex (kivas, clan lineages, matrilineal descent patterns).

Ohio River Valley “Mound Builders” constructed large earthworks for burial, ceremonial, or elite-residence purposes.
Mississippian settlement at Cahokia (near modern St. Louis):
- Population estimates sometimes exceed 25\,000 (largest pre-Columbian city north of Mexico).
- Featured a central plaza and monk’s mound (ten-story earthen pyramid), indicating stratified society and organized labor.

Iroquois Confederacy (Haudenosaunee) showcased the most advanced political organizational skills north of Mexico.
- Confederation of 5 (later 6) nations cooperating for mutual defense and diplomacy.
- Example of tribal unison without European influence, contradicting stereotypes of uniformly “disorganized” Native societies.
- Practiced a clan-based, matrilineal structure; women held significant influence in political decisions.

Native peoples generally did not manipulate land aggressively in a European sense—no private land‐title concept (no word for “land ownership”).
Resource use emphasized seasonal mobility, controlled burns, and ecological balance.
Ethical implication: challenges later Euro-American property law and justifications for dispossession.

Diffusion path: Southern & Central Mexico ⟶ Southwest U.S. ⟶ Northern & Eastern Woodlands.
- As maize moved, each native culture adapted uniquely to local environments (soil, rainfall, temperature).
- Diverse forms of maize agriculture appeared, from irrigation in deserts to swidden (slash-and-burn) in forests.

\text{Beringia} – Pleistocene land bridge across the Bering Sea.
Pueblo – Spanish word for village; architectural & cultural classification.
Three-Sisters Agriculture – Companion cropping of maize, beans, squash.
Cahokia – Mississippian urban center; symbol of complex North American societies.
Mound Builders – Cultures constructing earthen mounds for ritual or burial.
Nation-State – Polity with centralized authority and defined borders; Aztec Empire qualifies.
Iroquois Confederacy – League of tribes demonstrating sophisticated governance.

Demonstrates that agriculture precedes—as well as enables—urbanization and social complexity across the Americas, paralleling Old-World patterns (Mesopotamia, Nile, Yellow River).
Reminds us that native societies were diverse in political forms: empires (Aztec, Inca), confederacies (Iroquois), chiefdoms (Cahokia), and egalitarian bands.
The absence of large draft animals in the Americas meant labor projects (mounds, terraces) demanded human organization, underscoring the strength of social coordination.
Understanding the land-use ethic of indigenous peoples sets up later contrasts with European settler colonialism, resource extraction, and legal doctrines (Doctrine of Discovery, terra nullius).
The spread of maize is a recurring theme; expect DBQ or SAQ prompts asking to trace cultural diffusion and environmental adaptation.

Evidence of complex indigenous systems counters Eurocentric narratives of primitiveness.
Raises questions: Who owns land? How should modern states reconcile with people who had different concepts of property?
Recognizing human sacrifice invites discussions on cultural relativism vs. universal ethics.

Draw a chronological flowchart: Migration → Agricultural Revolution → Regional Civilizations.
Map geography: Beringia, Andes, Yucatán, Mississippi Valley, Eastern Woodlands.
Practice explaining the Three-Sisters system—it embodies environmental science, technology, and social organization.
Compare Aztec nation-state to European nation-states developing contemporaneously (Spain, France) to highlight convergent evolution of governance.