Psychological Disorders

Psychological disorders are identified based on certain criteria that help determine their presence.

DSM-5-TR: A classification system that describes the features used to diagnose each recognized mental disorder. It also indicates how each disorder can be distinguished from other similar issues.
Categories of Disorders:
- Neurodevelopmental Disorders
- Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders
- Bipolar and Related Disorders
- Depressive Disorders
- Anxiety Disorders
- Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders
- Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders
- Dissociative Disorders
- Somatic Symptom Disorders
- Feeding and Eating Disorders
- Elimination Disorders
- Sleep-Wake Disorders
- Sexual Dysfunctions
- Gender Dysphoria
- Disruptive, Impulse Control and Conduct Disorders
- Substance Use and Addictive Disorders
- Neurocognitive Disorders
- Personality Disorders
- Paraphilic Disorders
- Other Disorders

Return of the False Positives Problem:
- Highlighted by Jerome C. Wakefield, indicating areas of improvement in diagnosing psychological disorders.
  - There’s a high risk for false positives in the diagnosis.
  - Clarification is needed between the concepts of risk and disorder.
  - Symptoms should be understood within their context.

David Rosenhan Study (1973):
- Investigated whether professionals can reliably determine the presence of a psychological disorder.
- Demonstrated how the label of 'mentally ill' influenced observations and interpretations of patients.

Hippocrates (460-377 BC):
- Argued that psychological disorders had natural causes.
Paracelsus (1493-1541):
- Stated that unusual behaviors could be attributed to lunar effects.

Biopsychological Viewpoint:
- Involves brain disorders due to heredity or acquired conditions affecting neurotransmitter levels or brain structure.
Psychoanalytic Viewpoint:
- Focuses on unconscious conflicts originating in childhood, such as issues concerning sex and aggression.
Behavioral Viewpoint:
- Centers on the reinforcement or punishment of behaviors, leading to the extinction of appropriate behaviors and the reinforcement of inappropriate ones.
Cognitive Viewpoint:
- Involves irrational and maladaptive thoughts about oneself and the world.
Humanistic Viewpoint:
- Emphasizes incongruence between one’s actual self and public self due to societal demands.
Social-Cultural Viewpoint:
- Considers how social and cultural factors affect the prevalence of psychological disorders and their symptoms.
Diathesis-Stress Model:
- Proposes that stressful life experiences interact with biological predispositions, leading to psychological disorders.

Definition:
- A class of mental disorders where anxiety is the predominant feature. Often, individuals may experience multiple types of anxiety disorders simultaneously.
Comorbidity:
- Significant overlap between anxiety and depression.

Definition:
- Characterized by chronic and excessive worry, accompanied by three or more of the following symptoms:
  - Restlessness
  - Fatigue
  - Concentration problems
  - Irritability
  - Muscle tension
  - Sleep disturbance
Prevalence:
- Affects about 5% of North Americans at some point in their lives.
- More frequent among lower socioeconomic status (SES) populations.
- Approximately 2 times as common in women.
Factors Contributing to GAD:
- Both biological and psychological factors play a role.
Treatment:
- Benzodiazepines can help reduce GAD symptoms.

Definition:
- Characterized by sudden occurrences of multiple symptoms, leading to feelings of terror.
- Symptoms include:
  - Fear of dying
  - Fear of losing control or going insane
  - Dizziness
  - Trembling
  - Cold sweats
  - Heart palpitations
  - Shortness of breath
Duration:
- Panic attacks typically last for only a few minutes.
Statistics:
- Approximately 22% of individuals report having at least one panic attack, particularly in high-stress situations.
- About 3.5% of people experience panic disorder in their lifetime.
- Individuals may be hypersensitive to bodily sensations associated with anxiety.

Definition:
- Characterized by persistent and excessive avoidance and fear of specific objects, situations, or activities.
Types of Phobias:
- Specific Phobia: Intense fear of a specific object or situation, more common in women.
- Social Phobia: Fear of public scrutiny in social situations.
- Agoraphobia: Fear of being in public spaces due to fear of panic attacks or embarrassment.

Definition:
- Postulates that people are biologically predisposed to develop certain fears.
Proponent: Martin Seligman.
Supporting Evidence:
- Some research supports this theory, suggesting that temperament may play a role in predispositions to fears.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD):
- Definition:
  - Disorder characterized by recurrent intrusive thoughts (obsessions) coupled with ritualistic behaviors (compulsions) intended to alleviate obsession-induced distress, which frequently interferes with daily functioning.
- Key Role of Anxiety:
  - Anxiety is central to OCD; attempts to ignore obsessive thoughts are often ineffective.
- Statistics:
  - Approximately 1.3% of the population develops OCD during their lifetime.
  - Note lower rates observed in some Asian cultures and higher prevalence among women.
  - Moderate genetic components influence the likelihood of developing OCD.
- Common Obsessions:
  - Focus on themes such as cleaning, checking, repeating, ordering/arranging, and counting, often derived from genuine concerns.
Neuroanatomy:
- Increased activity in the caudate nucleus has been observed in individuals with OCD.

Quote: "Mental illness is a myth, whose function it is to disguise and thus render more palatable the bitter pill of moral conflicts in human relations." - Dr. Thomas Szasz
Encourages discussion on the validity of mental illness as a construct.