Learning

Learning

• Definition of Learning

  • Learning is defined as any experience that leads to the acquisition of new knowledge, skills, or responses that permanently change the learner.

  • Examples of learning:

  • Noted examples to be discussed in class.

Types of Learning

Habituation

• Definition:

  • Habituation occurs when a stimulus is presented repeatedly, leading to a gradual weakening of the response.

Sensitization

• Definition:

  • Sensitization occurs when a stimulus is presented and the response becomes stronger upon subsequent presentations.

• Examples of habituation and sensitization:

  • Class to jot down examples.

Classical Conditioning

• Definition:

  • A learning process that results in the formation of new reflexes.

• Key Terms:

  • Reflex: A simple, automatic response sequence mediated by the nervous system.

  • Stimulus: Any event or object that produces a response.

  • Response: A reaction to a stimulus.

Classical Conditioning Stages

Before Conditioning

• Components:

  • Neutral stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially produces no specific response.

  • Unconditioned stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any learning.

During Conditioning

• Process:

  • Neutral stimulus is paired with unconditioned stimulus to elicit the unconditioned response (UR).

After Conditioning

• Outcomes:

  • Conditioned stimulus (CS): Previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

  • Conditioned response (CR): The learned response to the previously neutral stimulus.

Classical Conditioning Findings

Extinction

• Definition:

  • The reflex diminishes or extinguishes over time if the conditioned stimulus (bell) is presented without the unconditioned stimulus (food).

Spontaneous Recovery

• Definition:

  • The conditioned reflex re-appears very quickly if the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are paired again after extinction.

Generalization

• Definition:

  • Conditioned reflex occurs with stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus.

Discrimination

• Definition:

  • The ability to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli.

Watson's Experiments

Little Albert Experiment

• Focus:

  • Conditioned fear response through systematic desensitization.

  • Ethical considerations:

  • Raises questions about the morality and ethics of conditioning methods.

  • Importance:

  • Significant contributions to understanding emotional conditioning.

Operant Conditioning

• Definition:

  • A learning theory similar to classical conditioning based on the law of effect, stating that behaviors followed by rewards are more likely to be repeated.

• Key Terms:

  • Operant response: A behavior that operates on the environment to produce consequences.

  • Reinforcer: A stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behavior.

Reinforcement

Positive Reinforcement

• Definition:

  • The addition of a desired stimulus following a behavior, increasing the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.

Negative Reinforcement

• Definition:

  • The removal of an aversive stimulus following a behavior, also increasing the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.

• Examples of reinforcement:

  • To be discussed in class.

Types of Reinforcers

Primary Reinforcers

• Definition:

  • Naturally reinforcing without prior learning (e.g., food, water).

Conditioned Reinforcers

• Definition:

  • Stimuli that acquire their reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers.

Immediate Reinforcers

• Example:

  • Completing homework and studying allows for immediate social rewards.

Delayed Reinforcers

• Example:

  • Studying consistently leads to improved performance on final exams.

Punishment

• Definition:

  • Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring. Not as effective as reinforcement but easier to understand.

Positive Punishment

• Definition:

  • The addition of an aversive stimulus following a behavior.

Negative Punishment

• Definition:

  • The removal of a desired stimulus following a behavior.

• Examples of punishment:

  • To be discussed in class.

Reinforcement Principles

Shaping

• Definition:

  • Gradually reaching the desired behavior by rewarding successive approximations of the behavior.

Extinction

• Definition:

  • The absence of reinforcement leads to the decline and eventual extinction of the behavior.

Continuous Reinforcement

• Definition:

  • Important during the initial stages of learning.

Schedules of Partial Reinforcement

• Types:

  • Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforcement after a set number of responses (e.g., every nth time).

  • Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforcement after a varying number of responses (e.g., after every n +/- times).

  • Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforcement after a fixed amount of time (e.g., every n minutes/hours).

  • Variable-interval schedule: Reinforcement after varying periods of time (e.g., after every n +/- minutes).

• Effectiveness:

  • Varies based on the situation and individual characteristics.

Observational Learning

Modeling

• Definition:

  • Learning through imitating the behavior of others.

• Albert Bandura's Contribution:

  • Developed the concept of social learning theory emphasizing the influence of observational learning.

Positive and Negative Modeling

• Concepts:

  • Observational learning can lead to either positive or negative outcomes based on the behavior being modeled.

• Bobo Doll Experiments:

  • Analyzed learning through observation and modeled aggression among children.

  • Findings:

  • Demonstrated that children can learn aggressive behaviors through observation.

Implicit Learning

• Definition:

  • Learning that occurs largely outside of conscious awareness.

• Examples:

  • To be discussed in class.

Learning in the Classroom

• Distributed Practice vs. Massed Practice:

  • Understanding the effects of spaced vs. crammed study sessions on learning retention.

• Practice Testing:

  • The benefits of regular testing on improving recall and understanding.

• Judgements of Learning and Metacognition:

  • Awareness of one’s learning process and ability to monitor and regulate cognitive activities.