AMSCO 8.7

Essential Question: What were differing reactions to existing power structures after 1900?
Conflicts of the 20th century affected newly independent and long-established states.
- Successful challenges to existing orders included movements led by both nonviolent and violent methods.
- Examples include nonviolence led by Mohandas Gandhi and violence by groups like the Shining Path in Peru.
- Some leaders, such as Francisco Franco in Spain, used military action to suppress resistance.
- President Eisenhower warned of a military-industrial complex, which increased arms supplies globally.

Despite violent protests, several movements employed nonviolence effectively, often led by visionary figures.

Led nonviolent marches, boycotts, and fasts against British colonial rule in India.
India gained independence in 1947.

Prominent African American civil rights leader in the U.S. during the 1950s and 1960s.
Employed various tactics:
- Court Decisions: Brown v. Board of Education (1954) outlawed racial segregation in U.S. schools.
- Boycotts: Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956) ended segregation in public transit.
- Massive Marches: March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, 1964, brought 250,000 people together.
These efforts led to significant achievements, including the Civil Rights Act of 1965.

South African lawyer and leader against apartheid, a legally codified racial segregation system.
Initially endorsed sabotage but became known for leading nonviolent protests.
His leadership culminated in the victory over apartheid (detailed in Topic 9.5).

In the 1950s and 1960s, there were efforts in Eastern Europe to reduce Soviet control, often met with harsh Soviet responses.

1956: Polish workers protested against Soviet domination for better living conditions.
- Resulted in Wladyslaw Gomulka becoming a new leader, pursuing an independent policy while remaining loyal to the USSR.
- Ended forced collectivization of farms introduced by Soviets.

1956: Protests prompted Prime Minister Imre Nagy to declare Hungary's independence and propose free elections.
- Soviet invasion crushed these movements, executed Nagy, and drove many Hungarians to seek refuge in the West.

Prague Spring in 1968 marked a peak of reform efforts, led by Alexander Dubcek, promoting more freedoms.
- Brezhnev Doctrine justified Soviet intervention to suppress this movement, stating actions threatening socialism in one country necessitated intervention from others.

Nationwide upheaval characterized by various protests:
- Yugoslavia: Students protested against authoritarian rule.
- Poland and Northern Ireland: Protests arose from religious tensions.
- Brazil: Marchers demanded educational improvements and fair worker treatment.
- Japan: Student protests against financial issues and U.S. involvement in Vietnam.
- Mexico: Military suppressed student movements prior to the Summer Olympics.
France: Major student protests led to a massive worker strike, prompting political changes in government.

Protests for civil rights and against the Vietnam War highlighted social discontent.
- Kent State shootings in 1970 prompted national university strikes.

Post-Cold War, open conflict between states decreased; instead, terrorist acts by non-state actors increased worldwide.

Post-1922 independence, Northern Ireland faced oppression of Catholics vs. Protestant dominance.
Significant violence ensued from the 1960s onward.
Some IRA members took actions to England, resulting in attacks and a ceasefire in 1994.

ETA (Basque Homeland and Freedom): Founded in 1959, sought Basque independence via terrorism, causing numerous deaths. Declared end to violence in 2011.

Founded by Abimael Guzmán in the 1970s, it used bombings and assassinations aiming to establish a communist regime, resulting in around 37,000 deaths.
Led to Guzmán's arrest in 1992, though violence persisted until late 1990s.

Groups using a fundamentalist interpretation of Islam engaged in terrorist acts, often targeting Muslims.
- Key groups: Boko Haram, al-Shabaab, ISIL, Taliban, and al-Qaeda, the latter responsible for the 9/11 attacks that killed over 3,000 people.
- Global unity against terrorism emerged, leading to significant efforts to diminish al-Qaeda's influence post-attacks.

Domestic terror incidents stem from various extremist groups, including the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing by anti-government extremists that killed 168 people.

Francisco Franco ruled from 1939 to 1975, using violent suppression against political dissenters but saw opposition grow after his death.

Amin's brutal regime (1971-1979) inflicted massive violence, expelling Indians and leading to a death toll of around 500,000.
His unpredictable leadership resulted in his eventual exile after resistance by Ugandan and Tanzanian forces.

Intense global conflict led nations to bolster military strength, resulting in increased economic reliance on defense industries.
Eisenhower's warning emphasized the potential political power of the military-industrial complex threatening democracy.