221+222 Vocabulary and Functional Language (2026) Comprehensive Study Guide
Essential Phrasal Verbs and Academic Verbs
To carry out: Defined as to conduct or to do (provést). Example: They carried out an experiment.
To bring about: Defined as to cause to happen (způsobit). Example: The demonstrations brought about a change.
To come about: Defined as to happen or start to happen (stát se, udát se). Example: How did the problem come about (in the first place)?
To account for sth (Explanation): Defined as to give a reason for something or to explain (vysvětlovat, zdůvodnit). Example: There are various factors that may account for this increase.
To account for (Proportion): Defined as to form the total of something (tvořit díl/část/…). Example: Students account for the vast majority of our customers.
To consist of: Defined as to be comprised of or to be made of (skládat se z). Example: The team consists of four Europeans and two Americans.
To focus on: Defined as to deal with or to concentrate on (soustředit se na). Example: This report focuses on the new strategies.
To expand on / To build on: Defined as to give more details about what was said/written (navazovat na, stavět na). Example: My work expands on/builds on A. H. Maslow's theory.
To be devoted to / dedicated to: Defined as to use a space, area, time, etc., for a particular purpose (být věnovaný čemu). Example: Over half his speech/talk was devoted to/dedicated to the issue of unemployment.
To refer to: Defined as to mention or speak about somebody or something (odkazovat na). Example: He referred to the fact that we are undergoing a crisis.
To point out that: Defined as to draw attention to a fact (upozornit, zdůraznit). Example: I would like to point out that we are running out of resources.
To put forward: Defined as to offer a proposal, a plan, etc., for consideration (nabídnout, navrhnout, předložit). Example: The proposals you put forward deserve our attention.
To allude to: Defined as to refer to (odkazovat na, zmiňovat). Example: He alluded to problems with the new computers.
To be attributed to: Defined as to be the result of (být přičítán/připisován/přisuzován čemu/komu). Example: This work is attributed to professor Smith.
To bear out: Defined as to confirm (potvrdit). Example: These findings bear out the previous assumption.
To point towards: Defined as to make it seem likely that a particular fact is true or that a particular event will happen (naznačovat, poukazovat na). Example: Our finding points towards definite progress.
To be based on: Defined as to use an idea, a fact, a situation, etc., as the point from which something can be developed (být postaven na, opírat se o). Example: This recommendation is based on our research.
To arrive at: Defined as to reach an agreement about something (dojít k něčemu). Example: We argued for hours and eventually we arrived at a decision.
To follow up with: Defined as to do something in addition to what you have already done in order to be certain of achieving your aim (navázat na něco čím). Example: We always follow up the phone call with a written confirmation.
To factor in: Defined as to account for something while making a decision or analysis (započítat, zahrnout, vzít v potaz). Example: We must factor in the age of the patients and their overall health.
To narrow down: Defined as to reduce the number of possibilities or choices (zredukovat, snížit). Example: We narrowed the number of candidates down from to .
To be subjected to: Defined as to be exposed to (být vystaven čemu). Example: They were subjected to unfair treatment.
To dispense with: Defined as to get rid of or do without something (zbavit se, upustit od). Example: Let's dispense with formalities and get right down to business.
To phase in: Defined as to introduce something gradually or in stages (postupně zavést). Example: They are going to phase in the new system.
To sum up: Defined as to summarize (shrnout, zrekapitulovat). Example: To sum it up, this approach will be beneficial for everyone.
To rule out: Defined as to exclude a possibility (vyloučit jako možnost). Example: He refused to rule out the possibility.
To contribute to: Defined as to help to cause an event or situation to happen (přispět k). Example: Everybody must contribute to the new scheme.
To result in: Defined as to lead to (vést, vyústit v, mít za následek). Example: The fire resulted in damage to their property.
Business Abbreviations and Acronyms
#: Defined as number. Example: Invoice #.
a/c: Defined as account. Example: Details for a/c number .
AGM: Defined as Annual General Meeting. Shareholders vote at this yearly meeting.
anon.: Defined as anonymous.
apt.: Defined as apartment. Example: Apt. .
ASAP: Defined as soon as possible.
attn.: Used in letters, emails, and memos to mean "for the attention of." Example: Attn: Sarah Jones.
approx.: Defined as approximately. Example: Expecting approx. people.
b.: Defined as born. Example: Mozart (b. ).
bcc.: Defined as blind copy to. Example: Bcc human resources in the email.
c.: Defined as circa or around. Example: Born c. .
C 20th: Defined as th century.
cc: Defined as copy to. Example: cc the boss.
CEO: Defined as Chief Executive Officer.
cf.: Defined as compare. Example: Sales in the third quarter increased (cf. previous data).
CFO: Defined as Chief Financial Officer.
c/o: Defined as care of. Used on a letter to someone staying at another person's house.
cont. / contd.: Defined as continue / continued.
d.: Defined as died. Example: Mozart (d. ).
dept.: Defined as department.
d.o.b.: Defined as date of birth.
e.g.: From Latin "exempli gratia," defined as for example.
esp.: Defined as especially.
est.: Defined as established. Example: Starbucks (est. ).
ETA: Defined as estimated time of arrival. Example: ETA is .
etc.: From Latin "et cetera," defined as and so on.
fig.: Defined as figure. Example: Shown in fig. .
fwd: Defined as forward (to).
HR: Defined as Human Resources.
i.e.: From Latin "id est," defined as that is, which means, or in other words.
incl.: Defined as to include or including. Example: Batteries incl.
max.: Defined as maximum. Example: Max. temperature: .
min.: Defined as minimum. Example: Min. cost: per person.
misc.: Defined as miscellaneous office tasks.
msg.: Defined as message.
n/a: Defined as not applicable or not available; used on forms when info is not relevant or products are unavailable.
N.B.: From Latin "nota bene," meaning it is important to notice.
no.: Defined as number.
p. / pp.: Defined as page / pages. Example: pp. .
p.a.: From Latin "per annum," meaning per year.
pls: Defined as please.
PR: Defined as Public Relations.
P.S. / p.s: From Latin "post scriptum," defined as postscript, written after the main text (used only in writing).
p.t.o.: Defined as please turn over the page.
qty.: Defined as quantity. Example: Qty. .
R&D: Defined as Research and Development.
re: Defined as regarding, concerning, or with reference to.
RSVP: From French "répondez s'il vous plaît," meaning please reply.
TBA: Defined as to be admitted or to be announced.
vs.: Defined as versus or against.
24/7: Defined as hours a day, seven days a week.
Business Idioms and Expressive Language
A tough break: Defined as something unfortunate that happens; misfortune; setback. Example: Caroline quitting was a tough break as she was a top performer.
Ahead of the curve: Defined as being more advanced than the competition. Involves investing in R&D to maintain an edge.
Ahead of the pack: Defined as being better or more successful than the competition through innovation and hard work.
At stake: Defined as being at risk. Example: There's a lot at stake during a high-stakes presentation.
Back to square one: Defined as starting something over again after discovering a previous path or solution was incorrect.
Back to the drawing board: Defined as starting something over and returning specifically to the planning stage.
Backroom deal: Defined as an agreement or decision made without public knowledge.
Ballpark number/figure: Defined as a very inexact estimate. Example: A commercial costing about is a ballpark figure.
Behind someone's back: Defined as doing something without someone's knowledge and in an unfair way.
Behind the scenes: Defined as something that happens in secret or not in front of the general public; the labor that makes a process look effortless.
Big picture: Defined as everything involved with a particular situation; the overarching goal rather than specific tasks.
Blue-collar vs. White-collar worker: Blue-collar refers to someone working with their hands (manufacturing, construction). White-collar refers to office workers (management, sales).
By the book: Defined as doing things according to company policy or the law; following rules .
Call it a day: Defined as deciding to stop working for the day.
Catch someone off guard: Defined as surprising someone by doing something they were not expecting.
Cave (or cave in): Defined as giving in or agreeing to something previously rejected.
Change of pace: Defined as something different from a normal routine or schedule.
Come up short: Defined as trying to achieve something but failing to achieve the goal completely.
Corner a market: Defined as dominating a particular market or having a large percentage of market share.
Cut corners: Defined as taking shortcuts; finding an easier or cheaper way to do something.
Cut one's losses: Defined as stopping unproductive activity that will not generate results.
Cut-throat: Defined as something very intense, aggressive, and merciless (e.g., competition in business school).
Diamond in the rough: Defined as something or someone with high potential that requires work or refinement.
Easy come, easy go: Defined as the concept that something gained easily is also lost easily.
From the ground up: Defined as starting a business or project from zero.
Game plan: Defined as a strategy or plan.
Get back into the swing of things: Defined as getting used to doing something again after a break.
Get down to business: Defined as stopping small talk and starting serious business topics.
Get something off the ground: Defined as starting a project or business.
Get the ball rolling: Defined as starting a project to ensure deadlines are met.
Get on the good side of someone: Defined as being liked by someone.
Get/have one's foot in the door: Defined as taking a low-level position with the goal of eventually moving higher.
Give someone a pat on the back: Defined as telling someone they did a good job.
Give the thumbs-down / thumbs-up: Thumbs-down means denying approval; thumbs-up means giving approval.
Go broke: Defined as going bankrupt or losing all available money.
Go down the drain: Defined as wasting or losing something entirely.
Go the extra mile: Defined as doing more than what is expected (e.g., offering discounts after a refund).
Go through the roof: Defined as rapidly increasing (e.g., social media followers).
Grey area / Gray area: Defined as something undefined and not easily categorized.
Ground-breaking: Defined as new and innovative technology or ideas.
Hands are tied: Defined as having no control over a situation (e.g., a manager unable to hire due to corporate restrictions).
Have someone's work cut out: Defined as having a lot of work to do or a particularly difficult assignment.
Hit the nail on the head: Defined as doing or saying something correctly.
In a nutshell: Defined as expressing something in a few words.
In full swing: Defined as being completely started and moving as fast as possible.
In the black: Defined as making a profit.
In the red: Defined as not profitable and operating at a loss.
In the driver's seat: Defined as being in control.
Keep one's eye on the ball: Defined as giving something full attention and not losing focus.
Last straw: Defined as the final annoyance or betrayal that causes someone to lose patience or give up.
Learn the ropes: Defined as learning the basics of a job or task.
Long shot: Defined as something with a very low probability of happening.
Loophole: Defined as a small mistake in an agreement or law that allows someone to avoid a requirement.
Lose ground / Gain ground: To lose or gain an advantage or market share relative to a competitor.
Lose-lose situation / No-win situation: A situation where a negative outcome occurs regardless of the decision made.
Nine-to-five: Defined as a job during normal working hours ( to ).
No brainer: Defined as a decision that is very easy to make and requires little thought.
No strings attached: Defined as something given without expecting anything in return.
Not going to fly: Defined as a solution that is not effective or will not be accepted.
No time to lose: Defined as a situation with high pressure to finish something quickly.
Off the top of one's head: Defined as giving a response without research or deep thought.
On a roll: Defined as having several successes in a row.
On the ball: Defined as being alert and aware of things.
On the same page: Defined as being in agreement about something.
On top of something: Defined as being in control of a situation and aware of changes.
On your toes: Defined as being alert.
Out in the open: Defined as being public knowledge and not hidden.
Out of the loop / In the loop: Being uninformed versus being informed about what a select group knows.
Pink slip: Defined as being fired by an employer.
Play hardball: Defined as being competitive in a cruel or merciless way.
Put all one's eggs in one basket: Defined as relying on only one thing for success.
Put the cart before the horse: Defined as doing or thinking about things in the wrong order.
Raise the bar: Defined as setting higher standards or expectations.
Read between the lines: Defined as understanding something that isn't communicated directly.
Red tape: Defined as excessive rules, procedures, and government requirements that create time-consuming barriers.
Rock the boat: Defined as causing problems or disrupting a peaceful situation.
Round-the-clock: Defined as occurring hours a day.
Run/go around in circles: Defined as doing the same thing repeatedly without results.
Safe bet: Defined as something that will probably happen.
Same boat: Defined as being in the same (usually difficult) situation.
Second nature: Defined as doing something so well it seems innate.
See eye to eye: Defined as agreeing with someone.
See something through: Defined as continuing a task until it is finished.
Sever ties: Defined as ending a relationship (e.g., with a supplier).
Shoot something down: Defined as rejecting a proposal or idea.
Sky's the limit: Defined as having no limit to what can be achieved.
Small talk: Defined as conversation about unimportant, non-offensive topics (e.g., weather).
Smooth/clear sailing: Defined as success achieved without difficulties.
Snail mail: Defined as traditional physical mail sent via a post office.
Stand one's ground: Defined as refusing to change one's opinion or position.
Start off on the right/wrong foot: Starting something in a positive or negative way.
State-of-the-art: Defined as modern and technologically advanced.
Take something lying down: Defined as accepting something unpleasant without fighting back.
Take the bull by the horns: Defined as directly confronting a difficult situation.
Talk someone into / out of something: To convince someone to do or not do something.
The elephant in the room: Defined as an obvious problem or controversial issue no one wants to discuss.
Think big: Defined as having ambitious goals.
Think outside the box: Defined as thinking of creative, unconventional solutions.
Throw in the towel: Defined as quitting.
Time's up: Defined as the end of an allotted time for someone or something.
Touch base: Defined as making contact with someone.
Twist someone's arm: Defined as persuading someone to do something they don't want to do.
Under the table: Defined as something done secretly and usually illegally.
Up in the air: Defined as something undecided.
Uphill battle: Defined as something difficult to achieve due to obstacles.
Upper hand: Defined as having an advantage over someone.
Win-win situation: Defined as a situation where everyone involved gains something.
Word of mouth: Defined as information spread through informal conversation.
Writing on the wall: Defined as evidence that something (usually negative) is going to happen.
Yes man: Defined as someone who always agrees with superiors.
Leadership Styles and Management Vocabulary
To coerce: Defined as persuading an unwilling person using force or threats (nutit, přinutit).
A subordinate: Defined as an employee below another in the hierarchy (podřízený/á).
To need constant supervision: Defined as needing continuous monitoring (potřebovat nepřetržitý dozor).
Authoritarian: Defined as requiring strict obedience to authority (autoritářský).
Clear rules and procedures on behaviour: Written policies telling members how to behave and make decisions.
A disciplinary measure: A way of dealing with workers who cause problems or disobey rules. * Phrases: To set/implement disciplinary measures.
To impose something on someone: To force acceptance of a rule or punishment (vnutit/uvalit). * Concept: Decisions are imposed from above (rozhodnutí přicházejí shora).
To consult: To seek information or advice. * Noun: A consultation.
Theory X: Assumes employees dislike work, are lazy, avoid responsibility, and must be coerced.
Theory Y: Assumes employees are ambitious, self-motivated, and want responsibility and autonomy.
To have an impact on something/someone: To have a strong influence.
To encourage someone to do sth: To inspire with confidence.
An initiative: A new plan for achieving a purpose. * Phrase: To use/take your own initiative (být iniciativní).
To take part in a decision making process: To participate in deciding.
To value: To consider important. * Phrase: To feel valued (cítit, že si mě někdo váží).
To empower someone: To give power, right, or authority to enable someone (zplnomocnit). * Noun: Empowerment (giving authority to correct problems without checking management).
A micromanager: A person who tries to control every part of a situation, including small details. * Verb: To micromanage.
Business Meetings: Vocabulary and Action Verbs
Absent (from): Not present.
To accomplish: To succeed in doing something.
To address: To deal with or speak on.
To adjourn: To stop a meeting for a period of time.
An agenda: A list of objectives to cover.
To allocate: To assign roles or tasks.
AOB: Acronym for "any other business," used for unspecified items at the end.
Apologies: Item on the agenda for announcing those absent.
An attendee: A person participating in a meeting.
A ballot: A type of vote, usually secret and in writing.
A boardroom: A large meeting room with a long table.
To brainstorm: Thinking to gather ideas spontaneously.
A casting vote: A deciding vote by the chairman when results are tied.
A chairperson / chair: The leader of the meeting.
Clarification / verification: Explanation or proof.
Closing remarks: Final thoughts, thank-yous, or reminders.
To collaborate: To work together in a group.
To commence: To begin.
To confer: To discuss an issue with others.
A conference call: Telephone meeting between three or more people in different locations.
Confidential: Private; not to be shared.
A consensus: General agreement.
To convene: To have a meeting or meet.
Crisis management: Actions taken to deal with emergencies in an organized way.
A deadline: The due date for completion.
To designate: To assign.
A facilitator: A person who makes a process easier (the "moderator").
A formality: A procedure followed simply because of a rule.
A guest speaker: Someone joining to share info or deliver a speech.
To implement: To make something happen or follow through.
Mandatory: Required.
Minutes: A written record of everything said at a meeting. * Verb: To take the minutes. * Role: A minute taker / recorder.
A motion: A suggestion put to a vote.
Objectives: Goals to accomplish.
Opening remarks: The chairperson’s first words (welcomes, intros).
A proxy vote: A vote cast by one person in place of another.
Punctual: On time.
A show of hands: Raised hands used to express an opinion in a vote.
Strategic planning: A process where executives decide on goals and resource use.
Unanimous: In complete agreement.
To wrap up: To finish.
Business Meetings Collocations
Address issues: To talk about problems/points.
Approve the action points (AP): To authorize points to be acted upon.
Appoint people responsible: To designate those in charge of tasks.
Assess performance: To evaluate employee work.
Assign tasks: To give specific duties to employees.
Bring up an issue: To raise a topic for discussion.
Call a meeting: To convene a session.
Come forward: To volunteer.
Conduct a policy review: To revise procedures.
Cover points: To discuss topics or materials.
Draw up an agenda: To compose the meeting program.
Exceed the time limit: To go over the allotted time.
Give presentations: To deliver professional talks.
Have/Hold the floor: To have the turn to speak.
Keep the minutes: To record the proceedings.
Kick off the meeting: To start the meeting.
Maintain focus: To keep attention on the topic.
Meet deadlines: To finish work by the due date.
Perform tasks: To carry out duties.
Provide a status update on: To give current info on progress.
Send out an agenda / minutes: To distribute the program or record.
Functional Language: Meetings and Presentations
Stating Meeting Objectives
"Today we need to follow through on one action item that…"
"The main focus/aim of this meeting is to…"
Introducing and Managing Discussion
"In terms of sequence, can I ask [Name] to go first…"
"Could you give us a little more background/go into more detail…"
"Would anyone like to add to that suggestion?"
"First, we'll gather all suggestions, and then we can talk about them in more depth."
Managing Opinions and Conflict
"I think both your perspectives are valid because…"
"Let's not dismiss [noun/-ing] too quickly."
"Why don't we talk it through a little more?"
Updating and Closing
"I'll keep you in the loop…"
"At the next meeting, we'll feedback on the action points…"
"I am now approaching the end of my presentation."
"That covers just about everything I wanted to say."
Presentation Specifics
Animations: PowerPoint features to make text move.
Cue cards: Cards used as an aid for the presenter.
Engaging: Capturing interest.
Feedback forms: Used to evaluate performance.
Facial expressions/gestures/posture: Components of body language.
Rapport: The relationship between presenter and audience.
Electrify the audience: To excite or captivate the listeners.
Generate leads: To create possible contacts for business.
Staff Motivation and Incentives
Annual bonus: Extra money added to salary once a year.
Boost staff morale: Making employees feel better about their work.
Incentive schemes: Programmes providing rewards for good work.
Non-cash rewards: Bonuses such as gift cards or extra days off.
Foster company loyalty: Encouraging faithfulness to the organization.
A subsidy / to subsidize: Financial support provided by a government or body to keep prices low.
Meal/Luncheon voucher: A benefit allowing employees to eat at outside restaurants.
Private Medical Insurance (PMI): Insurance paid for use outside the public health system.
Transit pass: A card for public transportation provided as a benefit.
Profit sharing: System where employees receive a portion of company earnings.
Non-contributory pension plan: Retirement benefits fully funded by the employer.
On-site childcare: Childcare available at the workplace.
Formal Email Language and Correspondence
Reason for Writing: * "I am writing in connection with…" * "I am writing with regards to…" * "I am writing in order to bring to your attention…"
Expressing Views: * "We are of the opinion that…" * "We strongly feel that…" * "It is our belief that…"
Making Suggestions and Closing: * "If you have any further questions… please do not hesitate to contact us." * "We are open to meeting / available to meet face to face." * "We look forward to hearing from you / to your response." * "Thank you in advance for your reply."
Oxford Debates and Argumentation
The Proposition: The side supporting the motion.
The Opposition: The side arguing against the motion.
To refute: To prove wrong by argument.
A rebuttal: A counterargument aimed at refuting points.
Cogent: Clear, logical, and convincing.
An interlocutor: A person taking part in a conversation.
To cede the floor: To let someone else take a turn to speak.
To concede: To admit something is true, even if unwillingly.
Gravitas: A serious and important quality.
Savoir-faire: Ability to behave confidently in social situations.
To be on the fence: To be undecided.
To reiterate: To say something again for emphasis.
Report Writing: Describing Trends and Statistics
Vocabulary for Trends
Increase: An expansion, growth, or upswing.
Decrease: A reduction, deterioration, or downswing.
Improve: An improvement or betterment.
Deteriorate: A worsening or deterioration.
Prepositional Usage for Statistics
Rose from to .
A rise in awareness of .
Rose by .
A sharp increase of in total sales.
Stood at .
Fluctuate between and .
Rise vs. Raise vs. Arise
Rise (Intransitive: rise, rose, risen): To go up (e.g., The sun rose; Inflation has risen).
Raise (Transitive: raise, raised, raised): To lift something or increase something (e.g., Raise your hand; They raised their prices; To raise awareness).
Arise (Intransitive: arise, arose, arisen): To happen or occur (e.g., Difficulties arose; Problems arise from lack of control).