Universal Theories in Speech Communication Notes

Universal Theories in Speech Communication Overview

• The study of speech communication involves understanding the foundational theories that govern how individuals interact. This subject is categorized under course code CES1343: Speech & Communication.
• The primary objectives of this study include:
  • Describing the importance of communication.
  • Defining the core concept of communication.
  • Describing communication as a dynamic process.
  • Identifying and describing four main models of communication.
  • Identifying and describing eight essential components of communication.
  • Identifying and describing five types of communication contexts.
  • Describing five key principles of communication.

The Importance and Function of Communication

• Communication serves as a critical tool for exercising influence over others.
• It is used to bring about changes in our own attitudes as well as the attitudes of others.
• It motivates people in our surroundings and is the primary means of establishing and maintaining relationships.
• Communication constitutes a major part of active human life and is defined as a social activity.
• Methods of communication involve:
  • Verbal methods: Speech, reading, and writing.
  • Non-verbal methods: Body language.
• Human communication is notably complex and varied with several objectives.
  • Complexity: Arises from the use of language, which is a "repertoire" or store-house of previously accepted and agreed-upon oral and written codes.
  • Variety: Communication ranges from simple gestures and facial expressions to advanced technological mediums like e-mail.

General Objectives of Human Communication

• To Persuade: Attempting to influence the beliefs or actions of others.
• To Provide Information: Giving or distributing data and facts.
• To Seek Information: Asking questions or looking for data from others.
• To Express Emotions: Using appropriate gestures and words to convey feelings such as courage, fear, joy, sorrow, satisfaction, or disappointment.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in Communication

Communication is deeply tied to human needs. Maslow's hierarchy describes these needs as follows:

• Physiological Needs: These are the basic necessities for human survival, including food, clothing, and shelter. Failure to fulfill these needs results in a person ceasing to function.
• Safety: Once basic needs are met, individuals require a life of security where safety is ensured across all aspects of life.
• Social Needs: This refers to the innate human need to feel as if one belongs to a social group or various relationships. A need for acceptance exists; without it, individuals are prone to negative psychological effects like depression and loneliness.
• Esteem: This involves the need to feel good about oneself and to receive recognition from others. A lack of esteem results in helplessness and an inferiority complex.
• Self-Actualization: This is the highest level, where a person aims to become the best they can be and maximize their full potential.

Defining Communication and Its Effective Application

• Definition (Pearson & Nelson, 2000): Communication is the process of understanding and sharing meaning.
  • Process: A dynamic activity that is difficult to describe because it is constantly changing.
  • Understanding: To perceive and interpret information, then relate that interpretation to existing knowledge.
  • Sharing: The act of giving something—such as a gift, time, or information—to another person.
  • Meaning: The specific content or essence shared during interaction.
• Effective Communication: A process where information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior.
  • For communication to be effective, information must be conveyed and received in the exact way it was intended.
  • It requires maturity, diplomacy, and a sincere willingness to listen.
  • It recognizes that every perspective is valid and treats it as such, often necessitating compromise.
  • Mastering these skills is beneficial across all areas of life, both personal and professional.

The Mechanics of Miscommunication

Miscommunication occurs when there is a lack of alignment between the mental states of the agents involved, specifically regarding the results or occurrence of the communication. Scenarios include:

• Inaccessibility: "A" was not accessible to "B," meaning "B" never received any communication to interpret.
• Lack of Perception: "A" was accessible to "B," but "B" did not perceive "A," leading to no beliefs about communicative intent.
• Misinterpretation of Intent: "B" perceives "A" but does not understand the intended meaning.
• Disagreement: "B" understands "A" but believes "C" instead. This is not necessarily a failure of understanding, but a disagreement regarding content.

Models of Communication

Models of communication help describe the basic elements of the process: WHO says WHAT using which CHANNEL to WHOM with what EFFECT.

1. Linear Model of Communication

• Definition: Explains a one-way communication process where a sender intentionally transmits a message to a receiver (Ellis & McClintock, 1990).
• Components: Source (Sender), Encoder, Message, Channel, Decoder, Receiver, and Interference.
• Mechanics:
  • The sender converts an idea, thought, or feeling into a message.
  • The channel acts as the medium, changing the message into a tangible form such as speech, writing, or animation.
  • The receiver decodes the tangible message back into an idea.
• Target Focus: The receiver is viewed as a target or end point rather than an active participant in an ongoing cycle.
• Example: A radio message. The announcer (sender) encodes a verbal message. It is transmitted via electromagnetic waves (channel) to the car's antenna and speakers (receiver/decoder). The announcer does not know if the message is received.
• Interference: Also known as noise or barriers.
  • Physical: Background noise or technical breakdowns.
  • Physiological: Learning or comprehension difficulties.
  • Psychological: Mental states such as stress, anxiety, or anger that affect interpretation (Barnett & O’Rourke, 2011).

2. Interactional Model of Communication

• Definition: Incorporates feedback, turning communication into a two-way, interactive process.
• Feedback: Messages sent in response to other messages.
• Participant Roles: Participants are "sender-receivers." They alternate roles to keep the encounter going.
• Mechanics:
  • Sender encodes a thought into a message.
  • Conveyed via channel (voice, email, etc.).
  • Receiver decodes and provides feedback.
  • The entire process occurs within a specific context or environment.
• Theories and Faults:
  • It assumes everyone communicates the same way and that thoughts/feelings transfer easily through non-verbal communication.
  • Fault: It disregards the complexity of non-verbal cues and assumes receivers decode them exactly like verbal communication.
  • Fault: It misses the nuance of relationships. Without a personal relationship, sarcasm might be misinterpreted during decoding.

3. Transactional Model of Communication

• Definition: Describes communication as a process where communicators generate social realities within relational, social, and cultural contexts.
• Creative Function: Communication is not just about exchanging messages; it helps construct our realities, form intercultural alliances, and shape self-concepts.
• Participant Roles: Participants are referred to as "communicators" rather than separate senders and receivers.
• Simultaneity: Participants are simultaneously senders and receivers.
• Example: A first date. While you send verbal messages about your interests, your date reacts nonverbally. You decode their nonverbal reactions while you are still speaking, allowing you to adapt your verbal message mid-sentence.
• Contexts in the Transactional Model:
  • Physical Context: The actual environment.
  • Psychological Context: The mental state of the communicators.
  • Social Context: Societal norms and settings.
  • Relational Context: The nature of the relationship between communicators.
  • Cultural Context: The cultural backgrounds and rules governing communication.
• The outcome of the Transactional model is the "Co-creation of meaning."