History - French Revolution Unit 3 AOS2

• How the new society responds to challenges. (Challenge and Response)

• How much do things actually change? (Change and Continuity)

• How successful is the new society in achieving its vision? (Compromise and Success)

Time Frame: 1789 (Aug 5) - 1795

(August Decrees - Establishment of The Directory)

SAC= Evaluation of Historian Sources

(15 May, periods 1 + 2)

1. What was the goal of the Revolution?

Equality for the Estates, to get rid of the Estate system, to create a written constitution, freedom from despotism, establish a representative democracy as opposed to a monarchy, fix the economy.

Create a Bourgeois society framed around a Constitutional Monarchy.

1. What were the values of the Revolution?

Liberty, Equality, Fraternity + Merit (Skill) and Utility (Usefulness).

1789 - 1791 - Idealistic Period

1792 - 1794 - Radical Period

1794 - 1795 - Reactionary Period

France 1789 - 1791

Idealistic Period

• Aim: consolidate revolution; enact ideals made in 1789 via August Decrees.

• Result: fracturing of groups, interference of foreign nations.

The August Decrees

• Aug 5-11: Committee drafts legislation

• Presented Aug 11 to the National Assembly; known as the August Decrees.

• Abolished the Feudal regime (in theory) and tasked the Nat. Ass. To begin drafting a constitution.

• Privileges, tax inequality, tithe, seigneurialism all abolished.

• First attempt to make ideas of revolution become concrete.

DORMAC - Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

• Aug 26 1789: Published DORMAC

• List of fundamental rights to be enacted into law.

• Drafted by Lafayette and Mirabeau.

• ”The foundation document of the new society” (Fenwick and Anderson)

• McPhee - The DORMAC was “a statement of bourgeois idealism”

National Government Reform

Active/Passive Citizenship

• Oct 22nd 1789: The NCA begins debating voting rights and the question of ‘active’ and ‘passive’ citizens.

• Based on merit and utility.

• Active: Only propertied men, with residency of at least one year in the same location and who paid 3 days’ wage in taxes.

• Passive: Women, the poor, those who weren’t living in the same place all year.

• Robespierre argued against this during his time as a representative in the NCA.

• Was designer around notions of Utility and Merit.

• Robespierre thought: Equality > Utility and Merit.

• Active could vote and join National Guard - paid by govt.

• Passive could only vote indirectly - vote for someone to vote for you.

Religious Reforms

Nationalisation of Church Property

• Nov 2nd 1789: The NCA nationalises all church lands via the Decree of Church Lands.

• Talleyrand, Bishop of Austin, was one of the few clergy members to support the move.

• Significance: Marked the beginning of the targeting of Church and religion in France.

The Civil Constitution of the Clergy

• July 12th 1790

• Aim: Reorganise the administrative side of the Church.

• Acknowledged Pope as spiritual head of the Catholic Church.

• That was where the Pope’s authority ended - Govt. would decide everything else.

• The NCA refused to consult the Church through this.

• Re-organised 130 dioceses in to 83 dioceses.

• Stated there was to be 1 bishop per diocese. Max 83 bishop.

• The title of vicar to be replaced with priest.

• All Church positions were to be decided democratically. Active citizens would vote in the priest, bishop, ect.

• Significance: Angered many members of the clergy, angered Church in Rome, matched ideals of the revolution.

• Nov 27th 1790: NCA declares all clergy must swear oath of loyalty to the CCoC.

• Those who didn’t were labeled enemies of the Revolution.

• Forced people to choose between faith and the revolution.

• Began to divide the new society.

Louis XVI Responds

• June 20 - 21 1791: Flight to Varennes OR Flight From Paris

• Aim is for Royal Family to flee to Montmedy (Small town near German border) then go to Austria (Marie Antoinette was Austrian)

• Word of departure has reached countryside.

• Significance:

• King seen as a traitor to revolution (leaves note condemning revolution)

• Those in the NCA who had supported the King seen as untrustworthy.

• Robespierre used this event to gain power. - rise of new leaders within the New Society

• “By fleeing, [the] king had renounced his sovereignty” (Richet)

Challenge: Religious Reforms

Response: Flight to Varennes

Challenge: Flight to Varennes (many cases, the response becomes a challenge itself)

Response: Champ de Mars Protestes

Champ de Mars Petition

• July 15th 1791: NCA decrees king did not flee but was abducted, note forged.

• July 16th: Jacobin petition against royal family. Splits Jacobin club; Feuilland club forms.

• July 17th 1791: people of Paris gather to sign the petitions at the Champ de Mars - site of the modern-day Eiffel Tower.

• Between 25,000 and 50,000 gathered.

• The Paris Commune (led by Bailly), fearful of violence, decreed martial law.

• National Guard ordered in, with Lafayette leading.

• Original leaders seen as turning against the people - Lafayette was driving force behind the French Revolution now he was marching on a protesting group of people.

• National Guard, after being pelted with stones, open fire on the crowd.

• Between 30-50 killed - dozens wounded. - symbolism: Lafayette killing people.

• Became known as the Champ de Mars Massacre.

• Significance

• People turn against NCA.

• Lafayette and Bailly seen as enemies.

• Old heroes become enemies of the revolution and lose their power whilst others gain power such as Robespierre.

Robespierre “The Incorruptible:

• From the town of Arras.

• Bourgeois family; father and grandfather both lawyers.

• Trained as a lawyer. Noted for taking on difficult cases for free.

• Elected to represent Arras in the Estates-General.

• Admirer of the philosophes.

• 1789, wrote a statement of principles:

1. The aim of society is happiness of all.

2. All men are born free and equal in rights, and cannot cease to be so.

3. The Principle of sovereignty resides in the nation.

• Supported the constitutional monarchy.

• April 1790: became president of the Jacobin Club.

• Earned the nickname ‘The Incorruptible’

• Believed in the value of ‘virtue’. vertu in French

• For Robespierre, virtue meant:

1. Devotion to Family

2. Devotion to work

3. Devotion to the ideals of the Revolution

4. Commitment to eliminate enemies of virtue and the Revolution.

• Member of the National Constituent Assembly.

• Argued against active/passive citizenship (April 1791)

• Proposed the law of self-denying ordinance (16 May 1791) = If you are in the NCA you cannot be re-elected into the Legislative Assembly.

• Condemned capital punishment (30 May 1791)

Jean-Paul Marat:

• Born in Switzerland.

• Trained and practised as a doctor.

• Sept 1789: founded the newspaper “L’ami du Peuple” (Friend of the People)

• Felt that the 1st and 2nd estates did not respect the people of France

• Promoted populist militancy.

• Aligned with the sans-culottes.

• Promoted the use of direct democracy (violence); verbally attacked any who he felt did not embody the revolution.

• 1789-91: Publishing of radical views in L’ami du Peuple

Danton:

• Trained as a lawyer.

• Did not serve in the Estates-General.

• Joined the National Guard.

• Jan 1790: Founded the Cordeliers Club with Desmoullins.

• Had great political awareness.

• Aligned with the sans-culottes, but did not rule out Constitutional Monarchy at first.

• After F to V, argued for King’s abdication.

• Promoted military justice until 1793, when he changed his views.

• Jan 1790: Formed Cordelliers Club

• July 15 -17: Organised the Champ de Mars Petition.

The Political Clubs:

• There were a number of Influential Clubs through AOS2

  • Jacobins

  • Girondins

  • Cordeliers

  • Montagnards

  • Feuillants.

• Despite holding different views, they all share common history, and were fluid in their views and political goals.

• Most of them came from the Jacobin Club.

• You could be members of more than one group at the same time, (Robespierre was a Jacobin and a Montagnard)

Jacobins:

• 1790 -1791: supportive of the constitutional monarchy.

• Increasingly radical over time.

• Came to dominate the Legislative Assembly and the Radical period.

• Largest of the clubs.

• Key members included:

  • Robespierre

  • Brissot (left to form the Girodins)

  • Lafayette (left 1790)

  • Marat.

  • Danton

  • Herbois

Feuillants:

• Formed from a split in the Jacobin club in June 1791.

• Considered monarchiens (supporters of a constitutional monarchy)

• Right Wing.

• Leader was Antoine Barnave.

Girondins:

• Split from the Jacobins in Nov 1791 after the Feuilland split.

• More regional, most members came from the west of France.

• Originally radical, but as the revolution reached 1793 they had become conservative.

• Key leaders included Brissot and Concdorcet.

• Lost influence from 1793 onwards.

Cordeliers:

• Most radical club.

• Formed 1790 by Danton and Desmoulins.

• Populist group - relied on the support of the people.

• Brief period of power in 1792.

• Other key members included Herbert.

Montagnards:

• Formed from members of the Jacobins and Cordeliers.

• Sat on the highest seats of the Assembly.

• Rose to prominence as the Girodins fell.

• Very radical group.

• Included Robespierre and Danton.

France 1791-1792

Challenge: The Papacy:

• Pope Pius VI was critical of the revolution.

• Published 2 briefs in April 1791 supporting Louis XVI and addressing the NCA/CCoC

• Helped to create both international and internal anger at the revolution

• briefs = letter/opinion - Charitas/Papal Bull

The Legislative Assembly:

• Opened Oct 1 1791

• Role was to ensure implementation of the Constitution; create new laws.

• 745 deputies; mostly bourgeois 3rd Estate.

• No deputies from the NCA were in the LA. Thus it was politically different.

• Initially dominated by the Feuillants (monarchists)

• Calls by Brissot for a defensive war to defend the revolution. (Against Austria)

• Austria made the Declaration of Pilnitz in 27 August 1791 which called for Europe to unite against France.

• By April 1792, the Girondins held most influence.

War with Austria:

• 20th April 1792: France declares war.

• Led by Brissot and the Girodins.

• Believed it would unite the rev and distract from concerns around the constitutional monarchy.

• Response to internal threats: Papacy and Austria.

1789:

• Aug Decrees

• DORMAC

• Women’s march

• Rationalisation

• Reforms to economy/church.

1790:

• CCoC (12 July 1790) - divides new society - (1791) leads to the Papacy in the form of Charitas condemnation of the revolution - leads to the Flight to Varennes - Champ de Mars - Pilnitz Declaration.

• Oath of Loyalty (27 Nov 1790)

1791:

• Papal condemnation of the Rev

• Flight other than Varennes.

• Constitution of 1791 - leads to division an new political groups.

• Girondin= unity; declare war against enemies - Austria.

1792:

• France declares war on Austria. (20 April)

First Tuileries Palace Invasion

• June 20th 1792: Sans-Culottes storm the Tuileires.

• Anger over the king’s use of the suspensive veto/early war losses.

• King placated crowd by sitting and listening to their complaints.

• Then he wore the red Phrygian cap; toasted the nation.

• Seen as an embarrassment for the family (by Marie Antoinette)

War with Austria:

• July 1792: France suffered early defeats; creates internal panic.

• In response, the National Guard opened membership to the passive citizens.

• Declaration of ‘La Patrie en danger’ 11-22 July 1792 (The Fatherland in danger)

La Patrie en Danger:

• 11-22 July 1792

• Declaration that all citizens must sacrifice themselves to protect France. Citizens given weapons.

• Radical Fédérés soldiers patrolled Paris. La Marseillaise became the people’s anthem.

• The order gave significant power to the sans culottes; shift from bourgeois government to populist policy.

The Brunswick Manifesto:

• July 25th 1792.

• Duke of Brunswick (Austrian - Prussian commander) declares Paris responsible for safety of royal family.

• Failure to meet the demands would lead to “an ever memorable vengeance by delivering the City of Paris to military execution and complete destruction.

• Parisians did not care for the manifesto.

The Insurrectionary Commune:

• August 9 1792: Paris Commune stormed, renamed “Insurrectionary Commune” dominated by sans-culottes.

• Organised by Danton and Robespierre.

• IC plans to storm Tuileries again.

Second Tuileries Palace (More important than the first):

• Many of the Swiss and National Guard defending the palace fled that night (Aug 9)

• August 10th 1792: more crowds gather the palace.

• 650 Swiss guard killed, 250 captured. - violent, driven by women.

• King flees the palace and seeks protection from the LA.

• Aug 11th; fearing attack, LA suspends King, constitution and itself. Organises elections for a National Convention based on universal male suffrage (no active/passive citizenship)

• Aug 9 to 11 : New Society completely reorganised .

• End of Legislative Assembly

• End of French Monarchy

• End of Constitution of 1791

• Help increases divides.

• Led directly to the NC

• Led indirectly to the Terror.

Downfall of Lafayette:

• Lafayette faced increasing opposition from popular individuals such as Danton.

• June 18 1792: Danton denounces Lafayette, accusing him of using his position to influence the king’s decisions.

• This was in response to Louis using his veto.

• Denton’s denunciation causes Lafayette’s reputation plummeted.

• Following the Second Invasion of the Tuileries, Lafayette attempted to gather support for a counter-revolution.

• Fails to rally troops.

• 19 August 1792: Defects to Austria. Arrested in Austria (under suspicion of being a spy), in prison until 1797.

• Effect: Signalled that the revolution had truly entered a new phase.

September Massacres:

• Sept 2-6th 1792.

• Response to the failing war effort.

• Prisons in rural France held many suspected counter-revolutionaries, nobles, refractory priests.

• Vigilante groups responded to the perceived threats - the massacres were a response to challenge.

• Approximately1200 people killed. Many beaten to death.

• In Abbaye Prison - 19 priests hacked to death under guidance from a local butcher.

• Princesse de Lamballe. Knows friend to Marie Antoinette. Arrested after the Tuileries Invasion. She was beaten and tortured before her head was cut off, put on a spike, and paraded outside Marie Antoinette’s window.

• Historian Caron argues that the September Massacres were no more than the ‘custom of the day’

War with Austria:

• The Battle of Valmy (20 September 1792) was a turning point in the war.

• Austrian army hit with disease.

• France’s armies made big gains in reclaiming territory.

• Battle of Jemappes (6 Nov 1792) France defeated Austria and captured most of modern-day Belgium.

• Appeared to justify the radical actions of the sans-culottes.

First Coalition Against France:

• Following successes, France declared war on England, Holland, and Spain.

• Combined with Austria and Prussia, these countries were known as the First Coalition.

• War would continue right up until 1815 with Napoleon.

• “War was the third great polarising issue of the Revolution” (Doyle). (First being the CCoC and second being the king)

The National Convention

• As many deputies had fled . LA no longer workable.

• Sept 20 1792: LA dissolves, NC formed.

• Terms Left and Right Wing (in politics) come from the National Convention, progressive Montagnards were on the left, and more conservative Girondins were on the right.

Factionalism:

Downfall of the Girondins

• The Girondins were a barrier ro the use of radical solutions to the challenges being faced.

• 5 April 1792: Girondin supporter General Dumouriez defects to Austria.

• An opportunity for radicals o take control of the Convention.

• Marat accuses Girondins as being accomplices of Dumouriez.

• Marat arrested, put on trial, acquitted.

• May 31 - June 2 1793: Sans-culottes storm NC, demand arrest of Girondins. NC gives in.

• Jacques Mallet du Pan writes that “like Saturn, the Revolution devours its own children.”

Death of Marat

• In response to the expulsion of the Girondins.

• 13 July 1793: Marat stabbed to death by Charlotte Corday.

• Corday was a young member of the Girondins.

• Marat became a martyr, symbol of the people.

A new Constitution:

Constitution of 1793

• Although prepared by August 1793, was not introduced.

• Oct 10th 1793: NC declared that until peace is achieved, the Constitution is suspended.

• “The Jacobin Constitution”

• People granted the “right of insurrection”

• Never formally introduced. More a symbol than real.

Counter-Revolution

The Vendee Uprising:

• March 1793 - 1796

• Vendee was culturally separated from Paris. Did not identify much with the Rev.

Final trigger:

• Levée en Masse Feb 1793 - forced conscription.

• Men ordered to leave their farms to fight in the war, leaving the Vendee vulnerable.

• March 1793- counter-revolution action breaks out.

The Terror:

What was the Terror:

• The use of extreme measures, government sanctioned, in order to stabilise the revolution and eradicate and external and internal threats.

• Different types of Terror: Military, Economic, Local, Factional, The Great Terror.

How was the Terror organised:

• Two committees oversaw the implementation of the Terror:

• The Committee of General Security.

• The Committee of Public Safety.

• March 11 1793: Revolutionary Tribunals are established - speed up the trials of suspects.

• Representatives-on-mission were sent from Paris to the countryside to ensure the orders of Paris were being followed.

Committee of General Security

• Oct 1792.

• To protect from internal enemies.

• Send counter-rev suspects to the Rev. Tribunal.

• Rev. Tribunal: extra-legal tribunal, 3 day trials.

Committee of Public Safety:

• 6 April 1793

• To protect from external enemies.

• 12 men, elected each month.

• Robespierre argued France needed a centralised government not popular violence.

Laws of the Terror:

• Law of Suspects (17 Sept 1793): Defined who the enemies of the New Society were.

• Decree on Revolutionary Government (10 October 1793): Declared the government “revolutionary until peace”. Placed the CPS above all other government.

• Law of 14 Frimaire (Dec 5 1793) gave the CPS full executive power.

The Terror and The Vendee Uprising:

• The sans-culottes influenced the NC; called for extreme measures to safeguard the revolution.

• Terror used in rural areas to suppress threats.

• Sorokin estimates 58 000 deaths. Could be as high as 200 000.

• Significance

• Symbolises the division of the revolution (Paris vs. Rural)

• Use of violence against own people.

The Federalist Revolts

• Additional rural revolts in the south of France:

• Bordeaux, Lyons, Marseille, Toulon, Toulouse.

• Triggers:

• ◦ Expulsion of Girodins

• ◦ The foreign war.

• ◦ Anger at power in Paris, especially the CPS and CGS.

• ◦ Concerns over the sans-culottes’ influence and the use of Terror in Vendee.

• Many involved argued for a Federal government and more autonomy.

• Between Aug and Oct 1793 average of 26 people guillotined a day.

Further Terror in the Countryside

• Terror spread quickly due to the Vendee and Federalist Revolts.

• Eg: Noyades at Nantes (Drownings at Nantes).

• Mass drownings in the river Loire.

• 4000 - 6000 victims, many of them clergy.

Consequences of Counter Revolution

• These events radicalised the revolution.

• Cemented the use of Terror as the solution to opposition.

• Led to Danton’s call for “Terror to be the order of the day.” (5 Sept 1793)

• Allowed for the introduction of laws such as the Law of Suspects (17 Sept 1793)

Justifying Terror

Terror and Virtue

• November 1793: Danton questions the extreme acts of Terror continuing.

• Feb 1794: Robespierre gave a speech defending the use of Terror.

The changing role of Danton

• April-July 1793: Danton attempted to negotiate peace in the war through the CPS. Failed. - Danton loses political support.

• From July 1793, Danton no longer in the CPS. Danton became more politically moderate.

• As the terror saw more of Danton’s friends become victim, he became more concerned with the policy of Terror.

• Became the leader of the Indulgents - moderate version of the Cordeliers.

Extremists - Hébert & Enragés

• In response to Danton’s moderate views, Hébert called for more action.

• 4 march 1794: Herbert and his followers (Enrages) called for an insurrection.

• 24 march: Herbert and supporters guillotined.

• Sans-culottes began to lose faith in the Nc.

Execution of Danton:

• Danton believed the execution of the Enrages meant the NC was open to more conservative views.

• he was wrong.

• March 29-30 1794: Danton and the Indulgents arrested.

• 5 April 1794: Danton and the Indulgents executed.

Robespierre and Religion in the Radical Period.

Festival of the Cult of the Supreme Being

• A proposed “rational religion”

• Created by Robespierre - made 4 hour long speech in a toga on the joys of rationality.

• 20 Prairial, Year II (June 8th 1794): The first festival of the Supreme Being. - Modelled on Ancient Rome.

• Adds to the sense of instability about Robespierre.

Terror Increases

Growing Unrest

• Sans-culottes, angered by the deaths of Herbert and Danton, became increasingly threatening.

• Members of government were expect from the law of suspect.

Law of 22 Prairial.

• Proposed by Couthon, supported by Robespierre.

• Any accused of counter-rev. immediately sent to the tribunal.

• No defence allowed. Only evidence proving guilt needed.

• Only one sentence; death.

• Beginning of the Great Terror

The Great Terror

• Final stage of the Terror.

• 22 Prairial - 10 Thermidor (10 June 1794 - 28 July 1794)

• An escalation in the number of deaths.

• 1376 deaths in Paris in six weeks (McPhee)

• significance

• Most radical period of the revolution.

• Members of the NC questioned the increase in Terror as Frane was now winning the war.

• NC turns against Robespierre.

• leads to the deaths of many key individuals.

• “Violence was the motor of the revolution” (Schama)

Thermidorian Reaction

• 9-10 Thermidor

• July 26 1794: Robespierre makes a speech. (8 Thermidor)

• Robespierre makes a speech accusing deputies of the NC as being traitors.

• 9 Thermidor: Robespierre is arrested following a brief standoff between supporters and the National Guard. - Robespierre was shot in the jaw, possible suicide attempt or a soldier shot him.

• July 28 1794 (10 Thermidor): Robespierre executed.

End of the Radical Period

Result of Terror

• Led to the end of the Girodins, Herbertists, Dantonists, and Robespierre.

• Between 40 000 and 200 000 killed.

• 2 639 executed in Paris.

• However, the new society did survive the internal and external threats.

1794 - 1795

• The Plain now took control of government.

• Began taking actions to return to the original revolutionary ideals, dismantling Terror, and reinstating the Church.

Slavery and the New Society

In the Ancien Régime

• Transportation of African slaves to French colonies underpinned the economy.

• Use of slave labour on plantations seen as essential.

• Less common in France. At its height, estimates place approximately 4 000 slaves in France. (In France’s colonies, it was very different - many more)

• The industry was heavily concentrated in places like Nantes and Bordeaux. - areas of the Federalist revolts (when France was debating whether to abolish slavery)

• Estimates suggest 13 000 slaves were transported to Caribbean.

The New Society

• 1789 - 1791: there was strong resistance to extending rights to slaves.

• May 15 1791: Equality between blacks with free parents and whites in slave colonies.

• Aug 14 1791: Significant slave riots in Haiti led b Toussaint Louverture.

• Feb 4 1794: NC abolishes slavery in all French colonies, via the Decree of 16 Pluviôse Year II

Robespierre and Slavery

• Robespierre was one of the few men who advocated for abolition as a part of the Revolution.

• Opposition due to tacit attitudes and dependence on the economic benefits of slavery.

1794 - 1795 - The Reactionary Period

Overview

• Aim: to return the Revolution to its original path, and to dismantle the radical groups..

• Result: a much more conservative France.

Key Events

The Thermidorian Reaction

• Aug 1st 1794: Law of 22 Prairial repealed (3 days past Robespierre’s execution)

• CPS powers reduced.

• The dismantling of Terror.

• Law of Suspects detainees released - 3500 by the end of Thermidor.

A New Terror - Retribution for those who supported/committed Terror

• Carried out by the Gilded Youth - young people who emulated nobility.

• The White Terror - terror against local Jacobins.

• Linked to the return of Catholicism.

• McPhee estimates around 2 000 killed.

Return of the Church

• CCoC and dechristianisation were very divisive.

• Sept 1794: Women lead charge to allow catholic practises.

• Sept 1795: Laws against the church scaled back.

Counter-Revolution:

• Rise of royalists.

• The Chouan group in Brittany and Vendee called for the restoration of the Crown.

• The death of the Dauphin (due to tuberculosis) 28 June 1795 weakened this.

• Overall limited.

Food Crisis:

• Harvest of 1794 was poor.

• Assignat value dropped late 1794. 5% of original value

• Dec 24th 1794: Law of Maximum repealed. End to fixed prices. Rural people benefitted from this, urban people (sans-culottes) suffer

• Meat prices increase 300 percent; butter 100 percent.

Journée of 12 Germinal:

• 12 Germinal Year III

• Protest by Sans-culottes, women. No leadership. (Against food crisis)

• Convention called the National Guard. 4 000 arrested, 26 Montagnards as well.

Journée of 1 Prairial:

• The final revolutionary journée.

• Market women, and workers, invaded the Tuileries where the NC was.

• National Guard called; protest ended. Rudé estimates 10 000 exiled from France.

The Constitution of 1795

• August 22nd 1795.

• The most conservative of all the constitutions.

• Restored active/passive citizenship.

• Established The Directory to replace the National Convention.

The Directory

• Assumed control 26th October 1795 - end date of AOS2.

• Executive form of government - 7 men, one was rotated annually in order to prevent dictatorship.

• No power in legislature but could suggest laws to the new two-housed system (The Council of 500/The Council of Elders)

• The establishment of the Directory brought the new society to a conclusion.

Constitution of 1795 (Year III):

In order of power

• The Nation (Active citizenship).

• The Directory (Panel) - No legislative power - suggests a law.

• The Council of Elders - receives suggestion, makes amends.

• The Council of 500 - receives amended law from Council of Elders, makes own amends sends it back.

• Laws went back and forth until it finally made its way back to the Directory for final sign off.

• Aims to restore the principals of 1789.

• Far more conservative and favours bourgeois elite, via restoration of active citizenship.

• Dilutes power in order to prevent radicalism and tyranny.

• Perhaps the nobility elite of the ancien regime were just supplanted by the new bourgeois elite.

The End