Ch 5 Exhaustive University Notes on Learning: Classical, Operant, and Cognitive Perspectives
Foundation of Learning
Definition of Learning: Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior that is brought about by experience.
Behavioral Perspective: This approach focuses on observable, measurable, and factual or objective data regarding behavior.
Nurture vs. Nature: The study of learning emphasizes the "nurture" side of the psychological debate, focusing on how the environment and life experiences shape behavior.
Classical Conditioning
Concept: Classical conditioning is the pairing of a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that naturally brings about a response.
Key Figure: Ivan Pavlov is the primary researcher associated with this theory.
Stimulus (Stimuli): Defined as "something in the environment" that triggers a reaction.
Components of Classical Conditioning
Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest (e.g., the sound of a bell before it is paired with food).
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned first (e.g., meat/food).
Unconditioned Response (UCR): A response that is natural and needs no training, pairing, or learning (e.g., salivation in response to meat).
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to eventually elicit a response (e.g., the sound of the bell after conditioning).
Conditioned Response (CR): A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus (now the conditioned stimulus); this is the learned response (e.g., salivation in response to the bell).
Phases of Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Example)
Before Conditioning:
Neutral Stimulus (Sound of bell) $\rightarrow$ Response unrelated to meat (Pricking of ears).
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS: Meat) $\rightarrow$ Unconditioned Response (UCR: Salivation).
During Conditioning:
Neutral Stimulus (Sound of bell) + Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS: Meat) $\rightarrow$ Unconditioned Response (UCR: Salivation).
This phase involves associative learning/pairing.
After Conditioning:
Conditioned Stimulus (CS: Sound of bell) $\rightarrow$ Conditioned Response (CR: Salivation).
The Unconditioned Stimulus (meat) is no longer required to produce the salivation.
Classical Conditioning in Nursing and Human Behavior
Nursing Case Study:
Before Conditioning: A needle is the Neutral Stimulus (). Physical pain is the Unconditioned Stimulus (). Crying in response to pain is the Unconditioned Response ().
During Conditioning: The needle () is paired with physical pain (), resulting in crying.
After Conditioning: The child sees a needle on a TV show at home and begins to cry. The needle is now the Conditioned Stimulus (), and crying is the Conditioned Response (). The original stimulus of physical pain () has been eliminated.
The "Little Albert" Experiment: Conducted by John B. Watson and Rosaline Rayner. They conditioned fear in an infant using classical conditioning principles of associative learning by pairing stimuli.
Phobias: These are intense, irrational fears resulting from associative learning.
Clinical Diagnosis: Phobias are categorized under "Specific Phobic Disorder" (Anxiety Disorders) in the .
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): This involves associative learning where combat veterans develop responses to specific sounds, smells, or sights associated with traumatic experiences.
Conditioned Response Phenomena
Extinction: This occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears.
Spontaneous Recovery: The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response. This occurs after a period of rest and without further conditioning.
Stimulus Generalization: This occurs after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response; other stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response.
Stimulus Discrimination: This occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another. It describes the ability to differentiate between stimuli so that a response only occurs for a specific stimulus.
Operant Conditioning
Definition: Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences.
Edward L. Thorndike: Devised the "Puzzle Box" to study how organisms learn from the consequences of their actions.
B. F. Skinner (): Developed the "Skinner Box" and refined the principles of operant conditioning.
The Nature of Behavior: Unlike classical conditioning (which is involuntary and innate), operant conditioning involves the organism voluntarily operating on its environment.
Principles of Reinforcement
Reinforcement: The process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated.
Reinforcer: Any stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behavior in the future.
Primary Reinforcer: Satisfies biological needs and works regardless of previous experience (essential for survival). An example is drinking water when feeling lightheaded or anxious due to dehydration and subsequently feeling better.
Secondary Reinforcer: A stimulus that becomes reinforcing because of its association with a primary reinforcer. Examples include money, stickers, or star charts.
Positive Reinforcement: The addition of something desirable to increase the likelihood of a behavior being performed again in the future (e.g., giving a raise for good performance).
Negative Reinforcement: The removal of something unpleasant or undesirable to increase the likelihood of a behavior being performed again in the future (e.g., applying ointment to relieve an itchy rash, which increases the future likelihood of using the ointment).
Principles of Punishment
Punishment: A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again in the future.
Positive Punishment: The addition of something unpleasant to decrease the likelihood of a behavior recurring (e.g., yelling at a teenager for stealing a bracelet).
Negative Punishment: The removal of something pleasant or desirable to decrease the likelihood of a behavior recurring (e.g., restricting a teenager's access to a car for breaking curfew).
Comparing Reinforcement and Punishment
Conceptual Framework:
To increase future behavior: Use Reinforcement.
To decrease future behavior: Use Punishment.
If something was added: The procedure is "Positive."
If something was removed: The procedure is "Negative."
Effectiveness of Punishment:
Pros: Appropriate for stopping dangerous behaviors; temporary suppression provides an opportunity to reinforce more desirable behavior.
Cons: Frequently ineffective; the punished behavior may be replaced by even less desirable behavior; physical punishment has harmful side-effects; it does not provide an alternative, more appropriate behavior.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcement of a behavior every single time it occurs (e.g., praise after every new sale).
Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement: Reinforcing a behavior only some of the time. This is categorized by ratio or interval.
Ratio Schedules: Based on the number of responses made.
Fixed-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement is given only after a specific, fixed number of responses (e.g., getting one free meal after buying ; losing a license after violations; commission on units sold).
Variable-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement occurs after a varying (average) number of responses rather than a fixed number (e.g., playing the lottery; the number of shots taken to score a goal in soccer; random quality checks).
Interval Schedules: Based on the amount of time that elapses.
Fixed-Interval Schedule: Provides reinforcement for a response only after a fixed period of time has elapsed (e.g., studying for a weekly quiz; getting a paycheck every two weeks).
Variable-Interval Schedule: The time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed (e.g., checking email; winning a video game levels; unexpected bonuses or promotions).
Specialized Training and Control
Stimulus Control Training: Behavior is reinforced only in the presence of a specific stimulus. For example, a child may only clean their room when a parent is in eyesight.
Discriminative Stimulus: A signal that indicates the likelihood that reinforcement will follow a response. An example is seeing a police car parked on the side of the road, which signals the driver to monitor their behavior.
Shaping: The process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. The steps include:
Reinforce any behavior similar to the target behavior.
Reinforce only responses closer to the target behavior.
Reinforce only the final desired response.
Behavior Modification: A formalized technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones.
Cognitive Learning Theory
Focus: Concentrates on the thought processes that underlie learning.
Mechanism: Challenges the idea of a simple mechanical link between stimulus and response, suggesting instead that people develop an expectation that they will receive a reinforcer after making a response.
Latent Learning: Learning in which a new behavior is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided to show it.
Observational Learning
Definition: Learning by observing the behavior of another person, also known as modeling (where an individual provides an example of a behavior).
Albert Bandura: Championed the social cognitive approach.
Bobo Doll Study: A famous experiment demonstrating that children mimic aggressive behaviors they observe in adults.
Mirror Neurons: Neurons that fire when we watch someone else perform an action, providing a biological basis for observational learning.
Influence of Media Violence
Aggression and Exposure: High levels of media violence make viewers more susceptible to acting aggressively.
Video Game Nuance: A meta-analysis suggests that the effects of video games on aggression are not substantial; they may even produce positive effects such as social networking.
Psychological Impacts:
Exposure to violent media content lowers inhibitions against carrying out aggression.
It distorts our understanding of the meaning behind others' behavior.
It desensitizes people to violence in the real world.