poli sci house/senate

The Legislative Branch Study Guide

Part I: Legislative Branch & Lawmaking

1. Overview of the Legislative Branch

• Constitutional Basis: Article I of the U.S. Constitution.

• Primary Function: Makes the laws.

• Bicameral Structure: Two chambers—House of Representatives and Senate.

• “Most Powerful Branch”? Historically influential due to lawmaking and budget powers.

2. House of Representatives

• Membership: 435 members (proportional representation by state population).

• Term Length: 2-year terms; elections every even-numbered year.

• Age Requirement: At least 25.

• Length of citizenship requirement: 7 years

• Leadership: Speaker of the House.

• Proportional Representation: The state's population determines each state’s number of representatives [at least 1].

• Apportionment & Reapportionment: Census every 10 years recalculates how many seats each state receives.

• Single-Member Districts: Each representative is elected by voters in a specific district within a state.

• Gerrymandering: Drawing House district boundaries to favor a particular party or group.

• Key Feature: All spending/tax bills must start in the House. Frequent elections mean members are highly responsive to local constituents. 

• Garnet Valley Congressional Representative: Mary Gay Scanlon (D)

3. The Senate

• Membership: 100 senators (two per state).

• Term Length: 6 years, staggered so one-third faces reelection every two years.

• Age Requirement: At least 30.

• Length of citizenship requirement: 9 years

• Leadership: Majority Leader (and VP is President of the Senate [Breaks Ties]).

• Equal Representation: Each state has two senators regardless of population.

• Key Feature: Filibuster, Advise and Consent, Approves Treaties.

• Pennsylvania Senators: 

  • Junior Senator - Dave McCormick (R)

  • Senior Senator - John Fetterman (D)

4. Impeachment

• House: Power to impeach (bring charges).

• Senate: Conducts trial; two-thirds vote needed to remove from office.

5. How a Bill Becomes a Law

1. Drafting: Bill ideas may originate in either chamber except revenue (tax) bills, which must start in the House.

2. Introduction: Sponsored by a member of Congress (in House or Senate).

3. Committee: Expert testimony, amendments, and initial votes.

4. Subcommittee: Specialized review and possible changes.

5. Mark-Up: Full committee amends, then votes.

6. Floor Vote: Debate by entire chamber; additional amendments possible.

   • Senate Filibuster: Extended debate. Requires cloture (60 votes) to end.

7. Referral to Other Chamber: May pass, reject, or amend the bill further.

   • Conference Committee if House and Senate versions differ.

8. President: Sign (becomes law), veto (returned to Congress), pocket veto (if Congress adjourns), or no action (becomes law after 10 days if Congress is in session).

9. Veto Override: Requires two-thirds vote in both chambers.

6. Enumerated Powers of Congress

Article I, Section 8 lists explicit powers, including:

1. Tax & Spend for General Welfare and Defense

2. Borrow Money

3. Regulate Commerce (Commerce Clause)

4. Establish Naturalization & Bankruptcy Laws

5. Coin Money

6. Punish Counterfeiting

7. Establish Post Offices & Roads

8. Regulate Patents & Copyrights

9. Create Lower Courts

10. Define & Punish Piracies

11. Declare War

12. Raise & Support Armies

13. Maintain a Navy

14. Regulate Military Forces

15. Call the Militia (National Guard) -Implied powers: Organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia. These implied powers allow Congress to carry out its explicitly stated power to call out the militia.

16. Regulate the Militia

17. Govern the District of Columbia

18. Necessary & Proper Clause: Basis for implied powers; key case: McCulloch v. Maryland.

7. Reflection Questions / Study Tips

1. Compare and Contrast the structures and powers of the House and the Senate. The House of Representatives has 435 members based on population, with shorter terms (2 years), and is more centralized with stricter rules. It focuses on issues like revenue bills and impeachment. The Senate has 100 members, with equal representation per state, longer terms (6 years), and is more deliberative. It confirms appointments, ratifies treaties, and conducts impeachment trials.

2. Explain how a filibuster can influence legislation in the Senate. A filibuster allows Senators to delay or block a vote by speaking indefinitely. It requires 60 votes to end the debate via cloture. This tactic can prevent or significantly delay legislation if opponents continue the debate.

3. Discuss the role of committees and subcommittees in shaping legislation. Committees and subcommittees review, amend, and refine bills, ensuring detailed scrutiny before they reach the full chamber. They specialize in areas like finance or defense, allowing for in-depth evaluation of proposed laws.

4. Evaluate the role of the President in the legislative process. The President proposes legislation, influences public opinion, and can veto bills passed by Congress. While the President cannot introduce bills, their support or opposition significantly impacts legislative outcomes.

5. Identify at least three enumerated powers of Congress and explain why each power is significant for governance.
   The Power to Tax: Essential for raising revenue to fund government operations.

   The Power to Declare War: Ensures Congressional oversight over military actions.

   The Power to Regulate Commerce: Manages interstate and international trade, vital for economic stability.

6. Analyze the effects of gerrymandering on electoral outcomes and representative democracy. Gerrymandering distorts electoral outcomes by manipulating district boundaries to favor a particular party. This undermines representative democracy by reducing fair competition and limiting diverse representation.

7. Define the Necessary and Proper Clause and discuss how it expands Congressional power. Reference McCulloch v. Maryland. The Necessary and Proper Clause allows Congress to pass laws needed to carry out its enumerated powers. In McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), the Supreme Court upheld Congress's implied powers, confirming that creating a national bank was within Congress's authority, even though it wasn’t explicitly mentioned in the Constitution.

Part II: Congressional Elections & Incumbency

1. Understanding House vs. Senate Elections

• House: Short, two-year terms; directly elected by smaller districts. More frequent campaigning. Focused more on local issues.

• Senate: Six-year terms; entire state electorate; historically less susceptible to rapid public opinion changes. Focused more on national issues.

2. Campaign Funding Trends

• Costs Over Time: Significantly rising for both House and Senate. For example, successful House campaigns increased from ~$776K (1980s) to ~$1.5M (2010s).

• Sources of Funding: Individual donors remain significant; super PACs can raise/spend unlimited money but cannot donate directly to a candidate.

3. Incumbency Advantage

• Name Recognition: Voters pick familiar names.

• Higher Fundraising: Incumbents often outraise challengers significantly.

• Constituent Casework: Staff and resources solve voter problems, building goodwill.

• Safe Seats: Many districts strongly favor one party, reducing competitiveness. Partially due to Gerrymandering partially do to voter movement.

• Despite occasional high-profile upsets, incumbents typically enjoy 85-95%+ reelection rates.

4. Local vs. Nationalized Elections

• All Politics Is Local: Traditionally, House members focus on local issues (pork-barrel spending, constituent services).

• National Issues: Increasingly, major national concerns (wars, presidential popularity, economic crises) drive midterm outcomes.

  • Surge-and-Decline Theory: Midterm elections favor the opposition party due to lower turnout among less-engaged voters.

  • Partisan polarization leads to more straight-ticket voting.

5. Reflection Questions / Study Tips

1. Why do House elections often hinge on local concerns while Senate campaigns may emphasize broader issues? House elections focus on local concerns because representatives serve smaller districts, while Senate campaigns address broader national issues due to the larger, diverse states they represent.

2. Explain why incumbency is so powerful in determining election outcomes. Incumbency is powerful because it brings name recognition, fundraising advantages, constituent services, and institutional power, often making incumbents the preferred choice for voters.

3. What factors can “nationalize” an otherwise local election (e.g., war, scandals, presidential popularity)? National issues like war, scandals, presidential popularity, or economic trends can "nationalize" a local election, shifting the focus from local concerns to broader national dynamics.

Part III: American Political Culture

1. Definition of Political Culture

• Political Culture: A society’s shared attitudes, values, and beliefs about its political system (“national political personality”).

• Importance:

  • Builds unity and consensus about acceptable political behavior.

  • Changes over time due to significant events (wars, economic crises, social movements).

2. Core Elements of American Political Culture

1. Beliefs

   • Egalitarianism: Equality of individuals, as in “all men are created equal.”

   • Individualism: Self-reliance, personal freedom, and initiative.

   • Equality of Opportunity: Everyone should have the same chance to succeed.

2. Values

   • Democratic Values: Rule of law, respect for government institutions.

   • Capitalist Values: Free enterprise, private property rights, and minimal government interference in the market.

   • Patriotism: Love of country, national symbols, and democratic ideals.

   • Political Tolerance: Willingness to let other groups exercise their freedoms, even if one disagrees.

3. Rituals, Traditions, & Symbols

   • Rituals: Ceremonies like singing the national anthem, the State of the Union address.

   • Traditions: Fourth of July celebrations; presidential inaugurations.

   • Symbols: The flag, the bald eagle—embody unity and identity.

4. Folklore & Heroes

   • Folklore: Stories about national founders (e.g., George Washington’s cherry tree).

   • Heroes: Individuals exemplifying core cultural values (military leaders, Presidents, sports figures, first responders).

5. Political Subcultures

   • Subgroups within the broader culture (regional, ethnic, religious).

   • Vary in their trust of government, emphasis on individual liberty vs. community welfare, etc.

3. Linking Culture & Politics

• Influence on Policy: Public attitudes about individualism, equality, and tolerance shape debate over welfare, civil rights, etc.

• Media & Culture: Popular culture and media coverage reinforce certain ideals (patriotism, heroism, success stories).

4.  Reflection Questions / Study Tips

1. How do values like individualism and equality sometimes conflict in policy debates? Individualism emphasizes personal freedom and self-reliance, while equality focuses on ensuring fair treatment and equal opportunities for all. These values can conflict in policy debates when policies designed to promote equality (like affirmative action or wealth redistribution) are seen as limiting individual freedom or rewarding those who haven’t earned it, while policies that emphasize individualism may exacerbate inequality or overlook disadvantaged groups.

2. Why are rituals and symbols so important in maintaining national unity? rituals and symbols (like the flag, national holidays, or the Pledge of Allegiance) help foster a shared sense of identity and belonging. They provide citizens with common experiences that unify them across different regions, backgrounds, and beliefs, reinforcing national pride and solidarity.

3. What role do political subcultures play in shaping opinions on government actions? political subcultures are groups within a society that share distinct political beliefs and values. These subcultures influence opinions on government actions by shaping how people interpret political issues, government policies, and social problems. For example, regional, religious, or ethnic groups may support or oppose policies based on how they align with their cultural values or interests.

Conclusion

The Legislative Branch shapes lawmaking through a bicameral structure, complex legislative procedures, and enumerated powers. Congressional Elections reveal the importance of funding, incumbency, and the interplay of local vs. national issues. Underlying everything, American Political Culture—with its emphasis on individual liberty, egalitarian ideals, rituals, heroes, and political subcultures—profoundly influences both how Congress functions and how citizens engage with their government. Together, these elements form a comprehensive picture of the U.S. political system for advanced students seeking a deeper understanding.

Gerrymandering

Redistrict the following town. There are 36 Republicans and 36 Democrats. This is a “winner-take-all” system where districts are represented by a single elected official. Gerrymander the following city by creating 4 districts. Ensure the Democrats win at least 3 of the 4 districts.

Rules:

There must be exactly 4 districts

Districts must be contiguous (no islands)

Each district must have exactly 6 “neighborhoods” 

One neighborhood =  1 group of 3 letters.