HST 312 Final Exam
The exam will cover 30 topic which are the following
1. Virginia Christian Case (1912)
2. National Association of Colored Women (NACW)
3. Rosa Parks’ Pre & Post-1955 political activism
4. Women’s Political Council (Will Lecture on Monday, November 25)
5. The Bronx Slave Market (1935): Marvel Cooke & Ella Baker
6. The Detroit Housewives League
7. Georgia Gilmore
8. New Deal: Social Security Act (1935)
9. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s’ Executive Order 8802 (June 1941)
10. Origins of the Civil Rights Movement
11. Prince Edward County (Virginia) School Closings (1959-1964)
12. Brown v. Board of Education (1954); Brown II (1955)
13. New Deal: Works Progress Administration / Federal Writers Project / Slave Narratives
from the Federal Writers Project, 1936-1938
14. White Citizens Council (1954)
15. National Association of Colored Women (1896)
16. Morgan v. Virginia (1946)
17. Black Nationalist women: Louise Little
18. New Deal Programs: Economy Act; Civil Conservation Corps; FDIC; Social Security
Act; Works Progress Administration; National Youth Administration so
19. African Americans & Communist Party (1930s): Attraction to the CP / Unemployed
Councils (1930s)
20. Black Female Labor: Day & Night maids, Laundresses: Nature of work; Challenges of
household labor, & Visions of Equity labor 11/4
21. Anti-Lynching Crusader: Ida B. Wells
22. Great Depression: Causes, Federal Response, & Ordinary Americans’ response to the
Great Depression (political activism and / or labor (informal economy)
23. Harry Truman’s Executive Order 9981 (1948)
24. Essie Mae Williams-Washington / Strom Thurmond
25. Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA): Black Cross Nurses
26. Civil Rights Act of 1964
27. The Great Migration / The Green Book / The Negro Motorist Book (1930s-1960s)
28. Voting Rights Act of 1965 (Will Lecture on Monday, November 25 + See lecture
online on D2L under Black Women & The Second Reconstruction)
29. Civil rights activist and philanthropist Mollie Moon (Tanisha Ford book)
Southern Response to Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Southern Manifesto; White
Citizens Councils; Southern Manifesto; Virginia’s Massive Resistance LawsDate 11/20
NOTES FOR EXAM are the following:
1) Virginia Christian case 1912 Lecture Date11/4
a) 16 years old
b) 1st black women by Electric chair
c) confrontation by with her employer she, Virginia, fought back and killed white women employer c accused of staling
2) National Association of Colored Women NACW or NACW Lecture Date: 11/6
a) founding 1896 motto: lifting as we climb, The National Association of Colored Women was formed to be a beacon of light for African-Americans women. Founded because of social economic political at the time 1890 after reconstruction 1877 emergence of jim crow segregation 1870,1880, and 1890s. about women addressing race, gender and class issues before the term intersectionality their motto org and writing show that they are concerned with everything effect black women. Also founded because worried about anti-black women in media for example James jack journalist in 1895 writes “the nigros in this country are wholly devoted of morality. They know nothing of it except as they learn by being caught or violations of law and punish their for after they consider no disgrace rather than honor to be sent to wear stripes. The women are prostitutes liars and thieves”
b) address issues important to black women; better the lives of black women/ it was an umbrella organization. NACW members developed various socio-economic
programs that provided services for working mothers, children and the elderly.
Using their own money or raising funds, women purchased and rented facilities to establish schools, nursing homes, day nurseries and clubs for mothers, wholesome recreation centers settlement house affordable houses with livable condition for black women and their children. Club activists taught classes on domestic and mothering, childcare, household management, hygiene, and domestic responsibility. —they do this because black communities are underserved and underfunded
c) Purpose: the organization aimed at achieving self-protection, self-advancement, and justice for African Americans. commitment to respectable politics NACW
d) activities schools and nursery in black neighborhood recreational centers for black peoples forming settlement houses for women and their children household management classes hygiene classes Promotion of Positive Public Images of African American Women
e) they paid for activities by raising money out of pocket
f) challenges to the NACW
i) regional difference that impacted ideology Sothern black women booker t. Washington camp they could be seen as more conservative booker t. Washington align himself with whites some black people see them he also get white people to donate to his university he was really a radical. Women like Ida b. well want to fight race, gender , and class simultaneously more progressively leaning. Booker t. Washington tend to be more conservative economic issues.
ii) skin complexion/Colorism
iii) some working and some middles class
iv) respectability : when perform for public what do you lose? Yourself identity suppression of ones authentic self because you are not who you turly are not saying what want t truly say
g) Members: Margaret Washington (3rd wife of Booker T. Washington); Mary
Church Terrell (1st pres. of NACW); Ida B. Wells (journalist, clubwomen, and
anti-lynching crusader); Nannie Helen Burroughs (founder of the National
Training for Women and Girls in D. C.); Mary McLeod Bethune (co-founder
of Bethune-Cookman College, clubwomen, part of FDR’s “Black Cabinet,
founder of the National Council of Negro Women (1935)
3) Rosa Parks’ Pre & Post-1955 political activism (Will Lecture on Monday, November
25)
a) Grandparents practiced Garveyism. Born 1913 died 2005. First women to have ----in the rotunda in the capital a right reserved for heads of state
b) Pre an post 1955 rosa parks December 1st 1955- 1956 bus boycott it is 381 days
c) Broader v. gale parks not parks not a part of 4 women apart of supreme court to end segregation on public transportation in Alabama which ends segregation on public transportation
d) 1946 10 year before broader v. Gale morgan v. Virginia ruled segregation on interstate travel unconstitutional point prior to 56 interstate travel should have been integrated
e) Freedom riders are testing two supreme court cases on cases testing is Morgan v. Virginia civil right activist are testing thing on paper meaning give me/ people black the rights that the government says that people have
f) Parks is ideal for boycott because she is ideal because she was secretary of NAACP President of that chapter she worked for NAACP in the 1940s she is a seasoned activist. Sitting on bus is dangerous white bus driver are allowed to carry gun and people are often violently ejected
g) Raised by mother and maternal grand parent in Alabama. Garveyites grandparents they were activist supported self-armed defense they were radical activist She was a school dropout she doesn’t go back to school until the 1930s
h) Husband Raymond parks she did not like him because he was to light but he was an extremely radical activist which she liked he encouraged to go back to school to get her diploma
i) She was working poor her whole life had economic struggles was a stream stress was anti rape activist and NAACP she took testimony of black women who had been raped in state of Alabama mostly women who had been raped by white men she interviewed Recy Taylor who was gang raped by 6 white men the state offer her an apology
j) Hyland folk school founded in mount eagles Tennessee by miles Horton which is a training ground not political activist for black and white learn new tactics she learn about new activist
k) Her favorite political leader was Malcolm x in 1930 she suffered near rape experience
l) Moves to Detroit Michigan she is based in Detroit 1956/ 57 is when she moved. she goes around the country raising money for the boycott. While she an Raymond lose jobs they have not steady stream of income for 10 years. In 1960 jet magazine they reveals parks is despite health problems and Raymond is an alcoholic different organizations start to raise money for her
m) Post Montgomery activism: 1980s Dc south African embassy south African apartheid, rosa parks with John Conyers congressmen in 1965/66 of Michigan rosa volunteer to work on his campaign. She get MLK to come to Michigan to support Conyers in 1965/66 she gives parks a job the 65 job first time she had a job since she left Alabama. She gets benefits example pension and dignity of having a job. Mock trial of detroit riots were murder victims get justice
n) She mentors new vanguard of new activist to younger activist. Mandela tells parks he survived prison because he thought of her thinking of her strength
o) 1994 man named Joseph skipper broke into rosa park apartment robbed and beat her. He said I will go down in history as the man who robbed rosa parks if I get out in time I will say sorry to her. In the 90s parks sues face records and rap group Outkast for song rosa parks—her handlers not her actual the people in charge of her estate
p) Parks supported black power movement she does not scrutinize young activist for taking armed or peaceful ex black panther or snip she was a supporter of black history, supporter of black history john Conyers HR 40 which is a bill propose to study the impact of slavery and Jim crow segregation on African Americans, against police brutality, supported freeing of political prisoners opposed Vietnam war and opposed Iraq war in the 200s she was supporter of self armed defense. Before she died she was finical destitute mike Ilitch pays her rent when he found we society don’t know until Ilitch died. Interest in Buddhism, physical health was important
4) Women’s Political Council
a) IS MADE UP OF WORKING- AND MIDDLE-CLASS WOMEN and Professor for Alabama state university
b) ORGANIZE MONTOGOMERY BUS BOYCOTT
c) Point of busses is to cripple bus company
d) To tell people to not take bus is hard so women political council, church an other activist programs, in Montgomery off bus and to work -----325 private cars, cit church donated station wagons, women political council established a taxi system 381 days at least 30,00 people were transported bus company lost 750,000$
e) White women indirectly aided the boycott when they go to black women’s houses or pickup black women who were maids or cooks
f) 2 orgs that come out of boycott 1montgomer improvement association and Martin Luther kind and org SCLS or Southern Christian leadership conference
g) SCLC
i) Black minister run like black Baptist church
(1) Men vocal face women organizer tend to be bridge leader’s organizer behind the scenes logistics
(2) Working class people
(3) 1 of the 6 that will organize march on Washington
5) The Bronx Slave Market (1935): Marvel Cooke & Ella Baker
a) The "Bronx Slave Market" refers to the informal system in the Bronx during the Great Depression, where Black women sought domestic work at extremely low wages, often as little as 15 to 30 cents an hour. This occurred after the stock market crash of 1929, which devastated the economy and worsened job scarcity, especially for Black women. Before the Depression, Black women were employed as domestic workers in wealthier households, but as white women and immigrant women entered the domestic labor market, competition for jobs drove wages down.
b) The term "slave market" was used to describe the exploitative conditions, where Black women had little choice but to accept poor pay and grueling work. In 1935, activists Ella Baker and journalist Marvel Cooke published an exposé titled "The Bronx Slave Market" in The Crisis to shed light on this exploitation. The article sparked outrage and activism for better wages, labor rights, and protections for Black domestic workers.
c) The situation persisted for years, with some improvements during World War II when jobs in factories became more available, but the problems returned after the war, particularly in the 1950s
d) Marvel Cooke was an African American journalist and activist known for her investigative reporting. In 1935, she, alongside activist Ella Baker, exposed the exploitation of Black domestic workers in the Bronx through the groundbreaking article "The Bronx Slave Market", published in The Crisis magazine. Cooke was instrumental in documenting the conditions that Black women faced during the Great Depression, where they were forced to work for extremely low wages in unsafe and grueling conditions.
6) New Deal Programs: Economy Act; Civil Conservation Corps; FDIC; Social Security
Act; Works Progress Administration; National Youth Administration
a) The new deal was under Franklin Delano Roosevelt Democrat years 1932, 1936, 1940, 1944. Died April in 1945 then vice president Harry Truman became president. FDR's new deal 1930s created a welfare state for the first time in U.S. history. Federal government gets to bail people out changes the relationship between people and the government. This is also where the democratic party becomes the party of social welfare.
b) first new deal
i) March 20th the Economy Act balanced the federal budget designed to convince the public that the federal government was in safe responsible hands
ii) beer and wine revenue act end of prohibition in March 22nd
iii) March 31st unemployment relief act created by the Civilian Conservation Corpse or the CCC
iv) CCC created a series of camps in national parks and forests and young men worked in semi military environments on such projects as planting trees building reservoirs and developing parks etcetera TCC camps were segregated by race and most workers were white mills women were excluded from this program
v) FDIC Or Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation established in 1933
(1) The first ever national system of Deposit Insurance begins protecting up to either 500 or $2500 per depositor
c) Second New Deal
i) Social Security act- May 1935
ii) Works Progress Administration or WPA projects: slave narratives from the federal writers project 1936, 1938: born in slavery: slave narratives from the federal writers project 1936 to 1938. In ohh writers were going to the South or or all over the country in order to get slave narratives interviewing formerly enslaved people getting their testimonies and photos which were given to the Library of Congress every research 1 university example Michigan State Harvard University of Michigan has these testimonies.
iii) National Youth administration-provided work and scholarship assistance to high school and college age men and women.
(1) 35,000 young black people
(2) Mary McLead bethune was a black woman who was a part of the National Council of negroe woman in 1935. The National Council of New Girl remained wanted the federal government to eliminate submitting photos for civil service jobs, eliminate discrimination in public housing and she was on the black cabinet or was a black advisor to the president
d) limitations of the new deal programs
i) The new deal left out domestic workers sharecroppers and or agriculture workers were not included
ii) The new deal was often called the raw deal because it was discriminatory. The new deal reinforced gender and racial standards so the new deal was raw for black people the new slash radio affirmed that black people were not deserving of government assistance
7) Women’s Political Council (Will Lecture on Monday, November 25)
a) Was in Alabama in 1964 the backbone of the Montgomery boy spark hats December 1st 1955 to December 20th 1956.
b) Was a race reform agency
8) African Americans & Communist Party (1930s): Attraction to the CP / Unemployed
Councils (1930s)
a) There are various reasons as to why black people were joining the Communist Party such as various classes of people in the West were looking outside of the in NAACP or Garveyism and outside the church
b) Communist Party we're helping people who are evicted and or poor they also had a Communist Party unemployed council
c) they also paid for the Scottsboro Boys Lawyer members were Claudia Jones WEB duBois and Angela Davis in 1968
9) Georgia Gilmore
a) Organized black women to sell pound cakes, sweet potato pies, fried fish and stewed greens, pork chips and rice at beauty salons, laundromats, cab stands, and churches. She immediately invested her profits in the city-wide bus boycott aimed at desegregating public transportation
b) Was a cook from Montgomery Alabama sold dinner to aid the boycott funding of civil rights movement. She organizes small cohort of black women to make food
10) Franklin D. Roosevelt executive order 8802 (June 1941
a) Prohibited government contractors from engaging in employment discrimination based on race, color or national origin. Executive Order 8802, signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on June 25, 1941, was a landmark directive that prohibited discrimination in the employment practices of defense industries or the federal government on the basis of race, creed, color, or national origin. It also established the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) to enforce this policy and ensure compliance, marking the first major federal action to promote equal opportunity in the workplace.
b) Mary McLeod Bethune, a prominent African American educator and civil rights advocate, played a significant role in advocating for racial equality during this period. As the director of minority affairs in the National Youth Administration, she worked closely with African American leaders like A. Philip Randolph to push for greater opportunities and fairness for Black workers and soldiers. Her activism, along with others', helped bring attention to the discrimination African Americans faced in defense industries and the military, pressuring Roosevelt to issue Executive Order 8802. This order aligned with Bethune’s lifelong efforts to secure better employment, education, and civil rights for African Americans.
11) Morgan v. Virginia
a) June 3rd 19446 Supreme Court struck down Virginia law requiring racial segregation on commercial interstate busses as a violation of commerce clause of US constitution freedom riders because of the lack of enforcement of morgan v. Virginia
b) Case integrated inter state travel
12) Black Female Labor: Day & Night maids, Laundresses: Nature of work; Challenges of
household labor, & Visions of Equity labor 11/4
a) Professional women lawyers for example in 1910 about 558 female lawyers of those 2 were of African descent by 1930 at least 22 black women in 1940 59
i) Women physicians 1855 – 1877 115 black women doctors going to HBCUS
ii) Magie walker first black women to be head of a bank in Virginia saint Luke penny order 1903 closes in the 200s black banks important because white banks not handing out loans, black banks give jobs, financial literacy class
b) Quasi legal underground informal jobs enterprising women
i) Operating brothel illegal
ii) Gambling enterprise illegal
iii) Street vendor selling stuff street but without documents
iv) Unrespectable would be like blues singer
c) Working class women
i) Boarding house owners
ii) Women who work in factories in major cities ex garment or textile
iii) Clerks/ retail clerks mostly I black business
iv) In south this would be household laborers or sharecroppers
v) Working class women and working poor are majority of black women
(1) Tend to be household workers
(2) Cooks and maids
d) Day maids
i) work 9-5 most black women want today and not night
ii) in south wages are low money on monthly basis north weekly
iii) day in south 15$ per month
iv) 5 days a week for
e) Night maids
i) in north and south live on premises of client/ employers
ii) Beck and call and call maybe 1 day off
iii) If employer want something in middle of night they have to put on uniform and do it
f) Laundress
i) Many black women want to be laundresses because they are not employees are the ability capacity to be an entrepreneur
ii) You get to pick what business you take in
iii) Pick hours, space, and hours: at their house, at clients house or community space with other black women
g) Challenges to black women working
i) Integration of one’s labor
ii) Verbal abuse
iii) Physical abuse white people thinking they can discipline workers
iv) Threat of sexual assault
v) Constantly being accused of theft criminality
vi) Lack of labor autonomy
vii) Lack of bodily integrity lack of bodily protection
h) Equitable is tied to freedom dream of complete citizenship
i) Fairness labor fairness between sex and races
ii) Control of your labor
iii) Bodily integrity protection if you are harassed at work currently their are avenues to justice
iv) Human dignity and respect
v) Right to unionize
vi) Right to bargain for equitable conditions negotiating terms of your labor
13) Anti-Lynching Crusader: Ida B. Wells
a) Anti lynching crusader
b) Was a part of NACW 1896
c) Progressive reformer
d) Had 2 books southern horrors: lynching law phases 1892 A red record 1892-1894
e) Support of anti-lynching bill dryer act
f) She did work in the south the belly of the beast. She was on the mor liberal side of NACW
14) Voting Rights Act of 1965 (Will Lecture on Monday, November 25 + See lecture
online on D2L under Black Women & The Second Reconstruction)
a) Signed: August 6, 1965, by President Lyndon B. Johnson. Purpose: Enforced the 15th Amendment by banning racial discrimination in voting practices, particularly in the South.
b) Key Provisions:
i) Outlawed literacy tests.
ii) Required "preclearance" for voting changes in areas with a history of discrimination.
iii) Appointed federal examiners to register voters in discriminatory areas.
iv) Directed challenges to poll taxes in state elections (abolished in 1966 by Harper v. Virginia).
c) Impact:
i) 250,000 Black voters registered by the end of 1965; more significant registration by 1966. Strengthened in 1970, 1975, 1982, and 2007. immediate challenge to constitutionality upheld by Supreme Court (South Carolina v. Katzenbach, 1966).
d) Context:
i) Inspired by civil rights activism, including Selma marches and national outrage over violence against demonstrators. Addressed long-standing barriers like poll taxes, literacy tests, and voter intimidation.
e) Legacy:
i) One of the most significant federal interventions in voting rights since Reconstruction. Key provisions partially struck down in 2013, reducing federal oversight in some states.
15) Southern Response to Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Southern Manifesto; White Citizens Councils; Southern Manifesto; Virginia’s Massive Resistance Laws
Lecture Date: 11/20
a) Black schools may have had old books and adequate building structures. Cities and states have not and did not adequately give the same amount of money dollars to Black children as to White children. For example, they might give a White child $100 but only give a Black child $30 per student.
b) Some Black people saw the beauty in separate but not segregated schools because separate schools were beneficial: 1) well-qualified Black teachers with high school and/or college degrees, so they were the brightest Black minds at these schools; 2) children’s identities were affirmed in Black spaces because children were not taught they were inferior, counter to what was around them; and 3) kids were taught Black content, for example, Black history. This was part of the creation of Black academics. When integration happened, Black kids went to White schools and faced violence and harassment. White children did not go to Black schools; they were not in Black spaces.
c) Brown v. Board of Education was made up of five cases: 1) Briggs v. Elliott, South Carolina; 2) Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward, Virginia; 3) Gebhart v. Belton, Delaware; 4) Bolling v. Sharpe, D.C.; and 5) Brown v. Board of Education, Kansas. Brown v. Board of Education was not immediate. The U.S. Supreme Court said two things: 1) separate educational facilities are inherently unequal, and 2) de jure segregation is a violation of the Equal Protections Clause in the 14th Amendment. This case overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson case (1896), where the term “separate but equal” comes from. There are two Browns: 1954 and one year later, 1955 (Brown part 2). The 1954 case left no timetable for this to follow, so they didn’t want to do it. In 1955, the Brown court said “all deliberate speed,” meaning schools had to desegregate, but once again left no timetable.
d) The first challenge to Brown v. Board was the White Citizens Council. A domestic terrorist organization was created after the Brown case, with 500,000 members in 11 different southern states. Politically, they were Democrats and believed in states’ rights. They did not support the Brown decision and were against it. Some members were also part of the KKK and took action in events such as the church bombing. People who supported Brown were intimidated. For example, Black people were intimidated: some Blacks were fired, some Blacks were evicted from homes, especially if the property was owned by a White Citizens Council member. The purpose of this organization was to restore the southern way of life and oppose the Brown decision.
e) The Southern Manifesto, the second challenge to Brown v. Board of Education, was created two years after Brown(1954), somewhere between February and March. The document was signed by at least 101 congressional members from the House and Senate. It was created by Strom Thurmond, a Democrat. In the 1960s, he switched to the Republican Party and became the longest-serving senator in U.S. history, serving from 1956 to 2003. He died in 2003, and in 2005, his mixed-race Black eldest daughter Essie Mae Williams-Washingtonwrote a book.
f) The 3rd and last challenge to Brown was Virginia’s massive resistance laws in 1956. The state of Virginia passed resistance laws. The Virginia General Assembly forbade any county or city to integrate public schools. The laws provided segregated public academies—separate private schools that were tuition-based. Any White child could attend, even poor White children, as they received tuition vouchers paid with tax dollars that everyone, including Black people, paid. In 1959, the Virginia Supreme Court ruled this unconstitutional. In Prince Edward County, Virginia, they would close all public schools for both Whites and Blacks rather than integrate. Black people would get an education by: 1) leaving the county or state if they could afford it; 2) opening makeshift programs and schools using churches, homes, or anywhere they could find a space; or 3) holding summer and winter programs.
g) Robert Green, an educator and professor at MSU, would get MSU students to go to Prince Edward and educate Black kids. College students across the country also participated. This led to the creation of free schools, operated and supported by the federal government and championed by Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy.
16) Progressive Era reformers
a) are men and women launching different types of reforms and movements
b) black progressive reformers men and women who believe that it is their right, their place their role and purpose to reform society they take a stand for something through politics
17) New Deal: Social Security Act (1935)
a) Part of the 2nd New Deal and takes effect in 1942 FDR is responding to his critics
b) Required states to set up welfare funds for its citizens Helped the elderly, the unemployed, unmarried women with dependents, people with physical disabilities
c) Enrolled everyone in a national pensions program
d) Did not include Agricultural workers, domestic workers
18) Harry Truman’s Executive Order 9981 (1948)
a) Focused on the military, mandating the desegregation of the U.S. armed forces. It aimed at providing equality of treatment and opportunity for African American soldiers, ensuring that race would no longer be a barrier to military service and assignments.
b) Focused on racial segregation within the military, aiming to integrate the armed forces and eliminate practices that kept Black soldiers in separate units with limited opportunities.
c) Established the President’s Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services, tasked with ensuring that integration occurred in the military. However, actual desegregation was slow, particularly in the Army and Marine Corps, and full integration didn’t occur until the 1950s
d) Had a longer-lasting impact by transforming the U.S. military, leading to the eventual integration of all branches of the armed forces. The military’s desegregation helped set the stage for later civil rights victories in broader society, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
19) Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA): Black Cross Nurses
a) The Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), founded by Marcus Garvey in 1914 in Jamaica, aimed to promote racial pride, economic self-sufficiency, and the creation of an independent Black nation in Africa. Its main influence was in U.S. urban Black neighborhoods, especially Harlem, after Garvey moved there in 1916.
b) Garvey appealed to poor Blacks in urban ghettos but faced criticism from other Black leaders, especially after declaring himself provisional president of the Empire of Africa.
c) The Black Cross Nurses were founded in 1920 by Lady Henrietta Vinton Davis in response to the 1918 Flu Pandemic, which left African communities medically unprotected. The organization served as the women’s auxiliary of the UNIA, focusing on health services, hygiene education, and addressing racial disparities in healthcare. Women in the Black Cross Nurses received training to provide standardized care and worked in local chapters with structured leadership roles. Their initiatives included maternal care, juvenile rehabilitation, and community service like distributing food and clothing.
d) Lady Henrietta Vinton Davis, born in 1860 in Baltimore, became a key UNIA leader after joining in 1917-1918. She gave up her stage career in 1920 to work full-time for the UNIA, becoming its first international organizer. She was also a director of the Black Star Line and vice president of the Negro Factories Corporation. Davis helped establish UNIA divisions across the Caribbean and became the UNIA’s Secretary General in 1929. She later led a rival faction of the UNIA, Inc., until her death in 1941.
20) Civil Rights Act of 1964
a) The Civil Rights Act of 1964, passed in response to the demand for equal protection under the law, prohibited discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. Sparked by events like the murder of Medgar Evers and massive resistance to desegregation, President John F. Kennedy and later President Lyndon Johnson worked to secure its passage. The Act banned discrimination in hiring, promotions, public accommodations, and federally funded programs. It also strengthened voting rights enforcement and desegregation efforts in schools.
b) The Civil Rights Act of 1964 ended "Jim Crow" laws and the "separate but equal" doctrine established by Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), marking a significant victory for civil rights in the U.S. It remains a foundational piece of legislation in the ongoing fight for equality.