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THE HISTORY OF DENMARK

Introduction to Danish History

• Long-running Statehood: The Danish state has existed as an independent entity without interruption for over $1,000$ years, which is unique in an international context.

• Shift in Regional Power: For much of its history, Denmark was a regional power in the Nordic region and around the Baltic Sea, consisting of diverse populations. It has gradually transitioned into a "small state" with a relatively uniform population.

• Systems of Governance: While the state has always been a monarchy, the role of the crown has changed drastically over time. Today, the King is the formal head of state, but political power resides with elected officials.

The Viking Age (ca. 750-1050)

• Social Composition: While often depicted as warriors, most people in the Viking Age were farmers or traders.

• The First Kings: King Angantyr (around year $700$) was the first known king to unite parts of what became Denmark.

• The Name "Denmark":

  • "Dan" derived from the "Danes" (the people).

  • "Mark" means "border area."

  • It first appeared within the country on a runestone from around $955$ raised by Gorm the Old for his wife, Thyra.

• Harald Bluetooth: Regarded as the first king to rule all of Denmark (and parts of Norway). He raised the great Jelling Stone (often called "Denmark's baptismal certificate") around $965$, claiming he made the Danes Christian.

• Ring Fortresses (Trelleborgene): Built around $980$ by Harald Bluetooth to secure the realm. Key examples include:

  • Aggersborg and Fyrkat (North Jutland).

  • Nonnebakken (Funen).

  • Trelleborg and Borgring (Zealand).

  • These structures prove the King had the power to tax and mobilize massive labor forces.

• Expeditions and Expansion:

  • Viking ships were flexible and solid, allowing travel up rivers and across seas.

  • Svend Forkbeard (Svend Tveskæg) conquered England in $1013$.

  • Cnut the Great (Knud den Store) ruled England, Norway, and Denmark (1018-35). This was the peak of the Viking Empire, which collapsed shortly after his death.

• Old Norse Legacy: Modern English includes roughly $200$ words from Old Norse (e.g., "egg," "window," "knife," "law," "sell").

• Asatro (Norse Religion):

  • $Asgård$: Home of the gods.

  • $Midgård$: Home of humans.

  • $Udgård$: Home of giants (jætter) and Udgårds-Loke.

  • Ragnarok: The end of the world.

  • Key Gods: Odin (King), Freja (fertility), Thor (thunder/war).

  • Linguistic traces: Wednesday (Odin), Thursday (Thor). Place names like Odense ("Odins vi" - Odin's sanctuary).

The Middle Ages (ca. 1050-1500)

• Power Struggles: Contests between the King, the Church, and the Nobility (stormænd).

  • Cnut the Holy (Knud den Hellige) was murdered in Odense in $1086$ because nobles were unhappy with fines for missing military service.

  • Håndfæstninger: Contracts signed by kings (beginning in $1282$ with Erik Klipping) to share power with nobles.

• Evolution of the Church:

  • Denmark initially fell under the Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen.

  • In $1103$, Lund (then part of Denmark) got its own Archbishop for the whole Nordic region, making the Nordic church independent of German influence and directly under the Pope.

  • By $1250$, approximately $3,000$ churches were built.

  • Tiende (Tithes): Citizens paid $1/10$ of their harvest/production to the church.

• The Law: Jyske Lov ($1241$) established that the King made the laws, moving away from blood feuds and customary law. Its famous intro: "With law shall land be built."

• Valdemar Atterdag and the Black Death: Around $1350$, the plague killed nearly half the population. Valdemar Atterdag used the crisis to seize land and rebuild state power.

• Margaret I and the Kalmar Union: In $1397$, Margaret I united Denmark, Norway (including Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland), and Sweden (including Finland) under Danish dominance. The union lasted until $1523$.

Reformation and Absolutism (ca. 1500-1700)

• The Reformation ($1536$):

  • Martin Luther's ideas were brought to Denmark by Hans Tausen in the $1520s$.

  • A civil war ($1534-36$) ended when Christian III defeated the Catholics.

  • The King replaced the Pope as the head of the church; Catholic bishops were deposed; monastery lands were seized by the Crown.

  • Biblical translations and services moved from Latin to Danish.

• Christian IV (1588-1648): Denmark's longest-reigning monarch. Famous builder (Rosenborg, Børsen, Rundetårn) but lost major territory. Involvement in the Thirty Years' War led to Swedish dominance in the Baltic.

• Loss of Territory ($1658$): The Peace of Roskilde forced Denmark to cede Scania (Skåne), Halland, and Blekinge to Sweden forever. Bornholm rebelled and returned to Denmark.

• Introduction of Absolutism ($1660-61$): Following economic ruin and war, Frederick III forced the nobility to pay taxes and established an inherited monarchy.

• Kongeloven ($1665$): Europe's only written absolute constitution, giving the King near-unlimited power until $1849$.

Denmark as a Colonial Power (from ca. 1620)

• The Slave Trade: Denmark established forts on the Gold Coast (Ghana). Over $100,000$ slaves were transported to the Danish West Indies (Sankt Thomas, Sankt Croix, Sankt Jan) for sugar plantations.

• Trade Colonies: Trankebar and Serampore in India provided spices and saltpeter.

• Greenland: Missionary Hans Egede arrived in $1721$ to Christianize the Inuit and trade in seal skins and whale meat.

• Sales: Colonies in India and Ghana were sold to Britain in the mid-$1800s$. The West Indies were sold to the USA in $1917$ ($25$ million dollars).

Enlightenment and Path to Democracy (ca. 1700-1849)

• Agricultural Control: Stavnsbånd ($1733$) forced peasants to stay on their birth-estates until age $40$ to ensure labor/soldiers. Abolished in $1788$.

• Agricultural Reforms: Transitioned from feudalism to freehold farming. Farms moved out of villages onto their own land, a change visible in the landscape today.

• The Napoleonic Wars (Englandskrigene):

  • Battle of Copenhagen ($1801$): British attacked following Danish neutrality in trade.

  • Bombardment of Copenhagen ($1807$): British seized the Danish fleet to prevent Napoleon from using it.

  • Loss of Norway ($1814$): Denmark surrendered Norway to Sweden via a peace treaty.

• The Constitution: On June $5$, $1849$, Frederick VII signed the first free constitution (Danmarks Riges Grundlov), ending Absolutism. It created a two-chamber parliament (Rigsdagen): Folketinget and Landstinget.

The Schleswig Wars (1848-64)

• 1st Schleswig War ($1848-50$): Borne from nationalism. Tensions between Danish-speaking and German-speaking residents. Denmark won at Fredericia and Isted, maintaining the status quo.

• 2nd Schleswig War ($1864$): After Denmark broke promises regarding Schleswig’s status, Prussia (led by Bismarck) and Austria invaded.

• Outcome: Danish forces were overmatched at Dannevirke and Dybbøl. Denmark lost Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenborg, losing $2/5$ of its population and $1/3$ of its territory. Denmark became a "small state."

Industrialization and Political Shifts (1864-1914)

• Emergence of the Working Class: Rural populations moved to cities for factory work.

• Workers' Movement: "International Working Association for Denmark" founded in $1871$. Slaget på Fælleden ($1872$) was a violent clash between laborers and police.

• September Agreement ($1899$): Established the "Danish Model." Employers retained the right to manage work; employees gained the right to organize and strike under specific rules.

• The Cooperative Movement (Andelsbevægelsen): Farmers pooled resources for dairies and slaughterhouses. Principle: "Heads, not heads of cattle" (equal voting Regardless of farm size).

• The System Change ($1901$): Parliamentarism was introduced. The King could no longer appoint a government with a majority against it in the Folketing.

• Women's Rights:

  • $1875$: Access to university.

  • $1880$: Right to keep own wages.

  • $1915$: Constitutional amendment granting women (and servants) the right to vote.

World War I and the Interwar Period (1914-40)

• WWI: Denmark remained neutral. $6,000$ Danish-minded Schleswigers died fighting in German service.

• The Spanish Flu: Killed approximately $15,000$ in Denmark (1918-20).

• The Reunion ($1920$): Referendums in North Schleswig (Sønderjylland) showed a pro-Danish majority. The border moved south to its current location.

• Economic Crisis: The $1929$ Wall Street crash led to $30+$% unemployment in Denmark.

• Kanslergadeforlig ($1933$): A historic compromise between Social Democrats and the Liberal Party (Venstre). It banned strikes for a year, supported farmers, devalued the krone, and unified social laws.

Denmark Occupied (1940-45)

• April 9, 1940: Germany invaded. High command chose to cooperate to mitigate occupation terms. Government and King remained in place (Samlingsregering).

• Resistance and August 29, 1943: Growing strikes and sabotage led Germany to demand a state of emergency. The Danish government resigned. Power handed to top civil servants (departementschefer). Navy scuttled its own ships.

• Holocaust: Over $7,000$ Jews were smuggled to Sweden in October $1943$. Nearly $500$ were sent to camps, but the vast majority survived.

• Icelandic Independence ($1944$): Iceland declared full independence during the war.

• Liberation: May $5$, $1945$ (except Bornholm, which was liberated by Soviet forces in $1946$).

THE DANISH DEMOCRACY

The Power of the Constitution (Grundloven)

• Rank: Highest law in the country.

• Amendments: Extremely difficult to change. It happened in $1866$, $1915$, $1920$, and $1953$.

• Current Version ($1953$): Abolished the second chamber (Landstinget), introduced female succession, and formalized parliamentarism.

• Trias Politica (Tripartition of Power):

  1. Legislative: Folketinget and the Government together.

  2. Executive: The Government (administers laws).

  3. Judicial: The Courts (conflicts/sentences).

Folketinget (Parliament)

• Members: $179$ total ($175$ Denmark, $2$ Faroe Islands, $2$ Greenland).

• Legislative Process: A bill requires $3$ readings. It must be signed by the King and a minister to become law.

• The Parliamentary Year: Begins the first Tuesday in October. Includes the PM’s "Statement of the Realm."

• Referendums: Mandatory for constitutional changes or transferring sovereignty. 1/3 ($60$ members) can demand a referendum on a passed bill.

State Institutions and Oversight

• The Government: Usually a minority government relying on supporting parties. No single party has held a majority since the $1920$ election system reconstruction.

• The Monarch: Formal head of state. Signs laws, appoints ministers, hosts state visits, but holds no political power. Succession belongs to the oldest child (amended in $2009$).

• Courts: Independent from parliament. Includes Byret (District), Landsret (High), and Højesteret (Supreme).

• Ombudsman: Appointed by Folketinget to investigate maladministration/misconduct by the public sector.

The Local Democracy

• Levels: $98$ Municipalities and $5$ Regions (soon to be $4$ in $2027$ as Region Zealand and Capital Region merge into Region East Denmark).

• Elections: Every $4$ years in November.

• Voting Rights: Granted to non-citizens if they are EU/Norway/Iceland citizens or have lived in DK for $4$ years.

Rights and Duties of Citizens

• Rights: Freedom of expression (no censorship), assembly, religion, and association.

• Limits: Libel, inciting violence, or "unbecoming" treatment of religious texts are restricted under judicial oversight.

• Duties:

  • Conscription (Værnepligt): Mandatory for all men and women over $18$ (as of July $1$, $2025$). Usually $4-11$ months.

  • Civic Duty (Borgerligt ombud): Must accept duties like jury service or serving on a municipal council if elected.

  • Taxes: Compulsory payment to finance the welfare state.

THE DANISH ECONOMY

The Welfare State and Taxation

• Ranking: Denmark is often ranked as the 9th richest country globally (IMF) and 3rd in the EU.

• Financing: Primarily through taxes (income tax) and VAT/duties. RET to services is usually universal (health, education) rather than based on previous contributions.

• Taxation Tiers ($2026$ setup):

  • First $51,600$ DKK: Tax-free.

  • Middle Tax ($618,400+$): $7.5$\%.

  • Top Tax ($750,000+$): $15$\%.

  • Top-Top Tax ($2.5$M+): $20$\%.

Labor Market Models

• Flexicurity: Easy to hire and fire (flexibility) combined with high social security benefits and active labor market policies (security).

• Tripartite Cooperation: Ongoing negotiation between the State, Employers (DA), and Employees (FH).

• Collective Agreements (Overenskomster): Covering $80$\%+ of the market. There is no statutory minimum wage; wages are set by unions and employers.

Key Economic Actors

• Food Cluster: Danish Crown (world's 2nd largest pig slaughterhouse), Arla (top 10 dairy).

• Industry: LEGO, Carlsberg (4th largest brewery), Novo Nordisk (life sciences), Maersk (2nd largest container fleet).

• Green Energy: Vestas (world leading wind turbine producer).

• Trade: Open economy with exports making up $50$\% of production. Largest export partner: USA ($15$\%). Largest import partner: Germany ($12.8$\%).

DENMARK AND THE WORLD

The European Union (EU)

• Membership: Joined in $1973$.

• The Four Exemptions (Edinburgh Agreement $1993$):

  1. EU Citizenship (no longer relevant since it applies to all states).

  2. The Euro (Denmark maintains the krone but follows a fixed exchange rate to the Euro at ca. $7.50$ to $1$).

  3. Common Defense (abolished via referendum in $2022$).

  4. Justice and Home Affairs (Legal reservation).

• Institutions: Commissioner (Dan Jørgensen, Energy and Housing), $15$ MEPs in the European Parliament.

Global Engagement

• UN: Founding member. Member of the Security Council $2025-26$.

• Development Aid: One of the few countries reaching the UN goal of $0.7$\% of GNI.

• NATO: Joined in $1949$ (Article $5$ "Musketeer Oath"). Current goal: $5$\% of GDP for defense by $2025$ (announced June $2025$).

• Arctic Presence: Via Greenland, Denmark is a key player in the Arctic Council. Pituffik Space Base (Thule) is vital for NATO defense.

DANISH CULTURE

Literature and Arts

• H.C. Andersen (1805-75): Fairy tales translated into $125$+ languages.

• Karen Blixen (1885-1962): Famous for Out of Africa.

• Søren Kierkegaard (1813-55): Father of existentialism.

• Visual Art: Bertel Thorvaldsen (sculpture), Skagen Painters (Krøyer, Ancher), Cobra movement (Asger Jorn), Olafur Eliasson (Your Rainbow Panorama).

• Music: Carl Nielsen (classical), Kim Larsen (rock/pop), Aqua (pop), Lukas Graham.

Architecture and Design

• Functionalism: Priority on practical function and social equality.

• Icons: Jørn Utzon (Sydney Opera House), Arne Jacobsen (The Egg chair), Bjarke Ingels (Copenhill/Amager Bakke).

Film and TV

• Silent Film: Asta Nielsen (first star).

• TV: Matador (most watched Danish series), Forbrydelsen (The Killing).

• Directing: Carl Th. Dreyer, Bille August (Oscar for Pelle the Conqueror), Thomas Vinterberg (Oscar for Druk/Another Round).

• Dogme 95: A cinematic movement emphasizing storytelling over technical effects (von Trier, Vinterberg).

THEMATIC ENTRIES

Geography and Symbols

• Highest Point: Møllehøj ($170$ meters).

• Longest Coastline: ca. $7,300$ km.

• The Flag (Dannebrog): Legend says it fell from the sky in $1219$. One of the oldest in the world.

Education and Religion

• Education: $10$ years of schooling required (undervisningspligt). Grading is on a $7$-point scale ($-3$ to $12$).

• Religion: $71$\% of the population are members of the Folkekirke (Evangelical-Lutheran). Monarch must be a member.

Social Issues

• Minorities: In $2025$, immigrants and descendants make up $16.3$\% of the population. Largest origins: Turkey, Poland, Ukraine.

• Equality: $Me-Too movement triggered major changes in media and politics (starting with Sofie Linde in $2020$). Legal rape definition changed to consent-based in $2021$.