Angiology (angiologia) encompasses knowledge of the vascular system.
The vascular system is divided into:
Blood vascular system (systema sanguineum) or circulatory system: transports blood (haema) in closed circuits.
Lymphatic system (systema lymphatica): unidirectional flow of lymph (lympha) from tissues to neck veins and heart.
Blood vascular system includes haematopoietic organs:
Bone marrow
Lymph glands
Spleen
Liver (embryonic period)
Thymus (childhood)
These organs replenish blood's formed elements.
The heart (cor) is the central organ:
Composed of two atria and two ventricles.
Blood vessels are classified by function:
Arteries (arteriae): carry blood from the heart to organs.
Capillaries (vasa capillaria): site of metabolic exchange.
Veins (venae): return blood to the heart.
Microcirculatory bed:
Consists of capillaries and adjacent vessels.
Components include arterioles (arteriolae), precapillaries (precapillares), postcapillaries (postcapillares), venules (venulae), and arteriovenous anastomoses (anastomoses arteriovenosae).
Facilitates direct exchange between blood and organ cells.
Lymphatic system's structure is closely related to blood capillaries in tissues.
Arteriole branching types:
Arcade type: numerous anastomoses between end branches and venule tributaries.
Terminal type: no anastomoses; end branches connect to precapillaries, then capillaries.
Microcirculatory bed structure varies depending on organ function and its blood capillaries.
Walls of arteries and veins have three layers:
Tunica intima: inner coat of endothelium (endotheliocytes on a subendothelial layer).
Tunica media: middle coat of circularly arranged smooth muscle cells, connective tissue, and elastic elements.
Tunica adventitia (tunica externa): outer coat made of collagen and longitudinal elastic fibre bundles.
Vasa vasorum: small arteries and veins supplying blood-carrying vessels and lymphatic vessels.
Vasa lymphatica vasorum: drains lymph.
Vascular nerve plexuses (nervi vasorum) innervate vessels in tunica adventitia and media composed of vegetative and somatic (sensory) nerve fibres.
Arteries differ from veins: veins' muscular coat is less developed, and they possess venous valves (valvulae venosae), especially in small and medium-size veins.
Types of arteries are classified by tunica media composition:
Elastic type: (e.g., aorta, pulmonary trunk).
Musculoelastic type: (e.g., carotid, femoral).
Muscular type: all other arteries.
Capillary walls consist of a single endothelial cell layer on a basement membrane.
Blood vessel calibre and wall thickness reduce with distance from the heart and branching within organs.
Vessel branching architecture is organ-specific.
Anastomoses (extra- and intra-organic) connect vessels; connecting branches are called anastomotic vessels (vasa anastomotica).
Dense anastomoses form arterial or venous networks (rete arteriosum, rete venosum) or vascular plexuses (plexus vasculosus).
Collateral vessels (vasa collateralia) participate in collateral circulation and restore blood flow when a major vessel is obstructed.
Arteriovenous (arteriolovenular) anastomoses (anastomoses arteriovenosae s. arteriovenulares): connect arteries directly to veins (e.g., fingers, kidney capsule), forming a derivative circulation apparatus.
Rete mirabile: network of capillaries with similar afferent and efferent vessels (e.g., kidney glomerulus).
The circulatory system includes blood vessels and the heart.
The heart has four chambers: right/left atria and right/left ventricles, separated by a septum, and atrioventricular orifices with valves regulating blood flow.
Venous blood flows from the body into the right atrium → right atrioventricular orifice → right ventricle → pulmonary trunk → pulmonary arteries → lungs.
In the lungs, blood becomes arterial and flows via pulmonary veins → left atrium → left atrioventricular orifice → left ventricle → aorta.
Aorta branches to tissues, where blood becomes venous (loses oxygen, gains carbon dioxide).
Veins progressively unite, emptying into the superior vena cava (head, neck, upper limbs, trunk walls) and inferior vena cava (lower limbs, pelvis, abdomen).
Both venae cavae drain into the right atrium along with venous blood from the heart itself.
Blood circulates in a continuous loop (general circulation), comprising lesser (pulmonary) and greater (systemic) circulations.
Lesser circulation: right ventricle → pulmonary trunk → lung capillaries → pulmonary veins → left atrium.
Greater circulation: left ventricle → aorta → body capillaries → veins → right atrium.
Both circuits are linked via the heart.
The heart (cor) is a muscular, conical organ in the anterior mediastinum, connected to great vessels and enclosed in the pericardium.
Heart shape varies (rounded or elongated), size is approximately fist-sized, and males generally have larger, thicker-walled hearts.
Basis cordis (base of the heart): posterosuperior widened part, connected to great vessels.
Apex cordis (apex of the heart): anteroinferior, freely lying part.
Facies diaphragmatica (diaphragmatic surface): posteroinferior, rests on the diaphragm.
Facies sternocostalis (sternocostal surface): anterosuperior, faces the sternum and costal cartilages.
The heart surfaces are continuous via rounded margins, the right being longer and sharper, the left shorter and rounded.
Grooves on the heart surface:
Atrioventricular: encircles heart, separates atria and ventricles.
Interventricular: anterior and posterior, separate ventricles.
The atrioventricular groove (sulcus coronarius) houses heart vessels, extending to the pulmonary trunk edge.
Anterior and posterior interventricular grooves (sulcus interventricularis cordis anterior/posterior) meet at the incisura apicis cordis.
Coronary vessel branches are positioned in grooves.
The heart is separated into four chambers: right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, and left ventricle.
The atrial/ventricular septum separates the atria/ventricles.
Atrioventricular orifices each have a valve to control blood flow from atrium to ventricle.
The right atrium is located at the base of the heart, cuboidal-shaped, featuring an ear-shaped auricle.
Walls of the right atrium:
Lateral: faces right.
Medial: shared with left atrium, forms atrial septum.
Superior, posterior, anterior walls.
Inferior: missing, corresponds to the right atrioventricular orifice.
Sinus venarum cavarum is the wider part where great veins empty.
The auricle of the right atrium extends anteriorly.
The sulcus terminalis spans from the inferior vena cava to the superior vena cava, marking the boundary between the atrium parts.
The auricula dextra is a flattened cone whose apex is directed to the pulmonary trunk, it's curved inner surface faces the aorta.
The right atrium receives the superior/inferior venae cavae, coronary sinus, and small heart veins.
Superior vena cava opening (ostium venae cavae superioris) is at the junction of the superior/anterior walls.
Inferior vena cava opening (ostium venae cavae inferioris) is at the junction of the superior/posterior walls.
The valve of the inferior vena cava (valvula venae cavae inferioris) is a sickle-shaped muscular valve that directs blood flow in the foetus.
Tuberculum intervenosum is a small tubercle between vena cava openings.
The coronary sinus (sinus coronarius) is a vein collector that opens near the inferior vena cava, has a valve (valvula sinus coronarii).
Foramina venarum minimarum: small openings for the venae cordis minimae.
The medial/posterior atrium walls are smooth, the lateral/anterior walls are uneven due to the musculi pectinati.
Crista terminalis corresponds to the sulcus terminalis.
The auricle of the right atrium inner surface is irregular and pectinate.
Fossa ovalis: a hollow oval depression on the medial atrial septum from foetal circulation. May have a small slit-like opening.
Annulus ovalis (limbus fossae ovalis) binds the fossa ovalis anteriorly/inferiorly; the valve of the inferior vena cava is linked to it.
The right ventricle is separated from the left by interventricular grooves, and from the right atrium by the atrioventricular groove; it is pyramid-shaped, with sharp lateral border.
The ventricular septum is concave towards the ventricle.
The right ventricle cavity has posterior (cavity of the ventricle proper) and anterior (infundibulum) parts.
Posterior connects with the right atrium via the right atrioventricular orifice.
Anterior: infundibulum (conus arteriosus) connects to the pulmonary trunk via the pulmonary orifice.
The infundibuloventricular crest separates the posterior/anterior parts of the cavitiy of the right ventricle.
The right atrioventricular valve (tricuspid valve) prevents blood backflow, containing connective tissue, elastic fibres, and muscle fibres connected to the atrium.
The cusps of tricuspid valve:
Anterior cusp
Posterior cusp
Septal cusp
Small accessory cusp.
Chordae tendineae connect the cusps margins to papillary muscles.
The papillary muscles:
The anterior papillary muscle is large and constant.
The septal papillary muscle is small.
The inferior papillary muscle is small.
The pulmonary orifice (ostium trunci pulmonalis) leads to pulmonary trunk, rimmed by semilunar folds that form the pulmonary valve (valvula semilunaris anterior/dextra/sinistra).
Small mid-cusp thickenings are called the nodule of the pulmonary valve (nodulus valvulae semilunaris), linked to the thick cord that stretches to either sides of the cusp margin, this is the lunula of the pulmonary valve (lunula valvulae semilunaris).
Left atrium, cuboidal with thin walls, displays superior, anterior, posterior, and lateral walls, with a medial atrial septum.
The auricle of the left atrium embraces the pulmonary trunk.
Posterior wall features openings for pulmonary veins.
Inferior wall: the atrioventricular orifice to the left ventricle.
The medial wall has a fossa ovalis-like depression.
The auricle's inner lining is interlaced with pectinate muscles.
The left ventricle, elongated and thick-walled, displays anterior/posterior interventricular grooves.
Two portions of the cuboidal shape are prominent: left wider portion towards the left atrium and an upwards rightside continuation of the cavity.
The anterior right cavity opens to aorta through the aortic orifice (ostium aortae).
The tricuspid valve is like the small endocardrial right cavitiy, there is an anterior/posterior aspect, auxillary cusps connect via chorda tendinae to posterior, it's base with the right ventricular wall itself.
In both the tricuspid & mitral valve, elastic and some muscle fibres exist with the myocardium, some chordeae tendinae connect the ventricle's septum/free margin while others attach to muscles/myocardium directly.
The chordae tendineae of this form supports systole by constricting ventricles into relaxed atrias. This action forces obstacle's blood to into the open pulmonary/aortic lumens of the atrial semi-lunar regions' walls.
e of the valve. Repeated interconnecting traveculae carneae cover the innerwall. A smooth aortic vestibule sits behind anterior semilumar valve, that crosses from right ventricle into this region. 3 such valve openings connect to aorta as a single semilumen, based on postion (right, left, & anterior). Unlike those in tricuspid this regions nodules are denser with lunula support either side. This region supports valve structure connecting the semilumens in area of tight compression.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE HEART. The heart's composed of three layers (Epicardium , Myocardium, Endocardium).
The visceral part of the pertcardium is the thin, smoth epicardium. The pertcardium has a fat containing connective surface that, particularly by the apex integrates intimately with the myocardium. However, the fat connective regions are the exception.
A strong myocardium separates the muscle of the atria/ventricles with dense fibrous atrio, from the root of the aorta via both right/left fibrous rings (anuli fibrosi, dexter et sinister). However, a posterior portion of the left fibrous ring is horseshow shaped not complete. Instead, trigona fibrosa (right/left) support the aorta root, and the fibrous rings are thus united.
While the rings form initial barrier, between atrial ventricular musculatrue an opening exists linking the musclature with atrialventricular bundle of modified impulse fibres. In similar vein, to the surrounding atria, additional (fibres vertical) also support the verticles by attaching them to the rings and into the cusps (mitral/tricuspid valves)
The superficial Atrial (mainly transverse, from broad muscular sheet from an horizontal inter-auricular bundle) is in contigious with both atrias inner auricle, septum and exterior.
The vertical Fibres link to the fibrous, muscle also merge into the valve cusps
The inner surface of the atrial auricle display the traveculae carneae. While a depression covered by the epicardium (bounded by vena cava etc…) transmits small nerve from posterior cardiac plexus to a trioventricular fasciculus.
Ventricals displays, deep, mostly vertical, muscles that can lack full connections base & thus forms the traveculae carnae. Only the medial (septum shows none of these traveculae)
Outer Oblique, arising at fibrous rings & roots of pulmonary/aorta are relativily thin (with both left/right versions combining into vorex)
Middle are in clearly defined circular bundles, (more developed in the left, which overall walls, are therfore much thicker)
-THE VESSELS OF THE HEART. Heart is supplied from left/Right corinary Artery (origing first branches of aorta).
The Right originates in Right aortic sinus & tracks the in atrioventricular groove down the aorta walls (between infundiblium & auricle) to the right hear border branch off smaller fine vessel. It continues down the diragram surface to supply the posterior wall to septrum (reaching close junctions of middla/ inferior third of main track.) as ramus interventriuclaris posterior.
On entering the ventrilicualr groove it reaches the left half with vessels for atrial/ventrical walls
Right coronary anastomose with in to supply blood to: pulmonary trunk/aorta, atria, right ventricle, posterior left, ventricular/atrail septum,
-THE VESSELS OF THE HEART. Heart is supplied from left/Right corinary Artery (origing first branches of aorta).
Left is larger arises in left sinuse, branches off, past pulmonary and left half of atioventricular groove into: Ramus interventrilcularis anterior & Ramus circumflexus.
Ramus interventrilcularis is a small track downwards in anterioir ventricular goes deep into myocardium. Along route branch from both left/ right coronary. it supplies small vessle to Ifundimbulum to atrial/ventrical walls & the apext. Close to orign it give rise to a diagonal artery, & anastomotic vessels to right system
Ramus circumflexus arisse after atrioventrical groove, to reach the left boarder and then into diaahramgactic to serve. Doesnt reach inferir ventricalr supply anterior/postierior left walls & their ventricles. Along route vessels supply auricle of left, atrium and ventricles.
The left coronary supplies blood to: pulmonary trunk/aorta, r atrial/aorta, auricles, anterior/posteror walls, ventricular etc…
Venis of the heart direct into the Coronory Sinuse (situs coronarius), apart from the tiny/anterior vessels. which open in right.
Sinus Crown run down the great head vein on the dirafamic suface (reiciveing from obllieque vain). And measure 2-3cm is covered by a layer of ventricular/artrial muslce.
The Valve (Valvula situs cornaryi) support the crown opening. However may multiple valves exits int eh sinus itself.
The Great Head Starts a Apex, from desending and joins the crown after left boarders into Sinuse. A small value exit in region, the grear recieve vein of septu//venticles the sinus
The Vena Obliqua - on lateral side runs across back to right side and joins. A small valve MAYbe exits at his side
Posteror (Posteror Ventriculy siniastri) to the greata direct to the heart, small vein at apex
Middle Cardiac: at the heart apex joins the right cornary into Sinuse
-Small card, rigs from aorta, joins on, can open dirctly (independent into aorta) and right extrem
Anterior Cardiois Small often joins right atrium
The smallest: the venous miria draining into all rooms of right partly left
-- The pertcardium (A double layered Membrane) and a fibrous outter and (serus) in inner sections.
The Pericardium (Fibrous) are attached Diaphragm and ligament vessel on posterior /strenrum antroer.
The parital (serson-perticium and viseral layers (epitcardium) - with large and obllique Sinos as the vessels enter /leave the the heart for fluids purpoe (to reduce frition during beaing)