Revolution in Europe and Latin America

Key People and Their Roles in Early 19th-Century European Ideologies

Key People and Their Roles in Early 19th-Century European Ideologies

  • Louis XVIII: King of France who established a constitutional monarchy after the fall of Napoleon, promoting a bicameral legislature while maintaining royal authority.

  • Charles X: Abdicated as King of France following the Revolution of 1830; known for his absolutist policies which sparked public outrage.

  • Louis Philippe: Monarch of the July Monarchy; his rule favored the bourgeoisie leading to dissatisfaction from the working class, contributing to the February Revolution of 1848.

  • Clemens von Metternich: Austrian diplomat who played a significant role in protecting conservative order in Europe; his flight during uprisings marked a shift in governmental reforms such as the abolition of serfdom.

  • Louis Kossuth: Hungarian leader advocating for national independence and democratic reforms in Hungary, becoming a symbol of the fight against imperialism.

  • Simón Bolívar: Venezuelan military and political leader instrumental in the independence of several Latin American countries from Spanish rule, known as "El Libertador."

  • José de San Martín: Argentinian general and leader in the southern part of South America's struggle for independence from Spanish rule, also ensured the independence of Peru.

  • Toussaint L'Ouverture: Former slave who led the Haitian Revolution against French colonial rule, paving the way for Haiti's independence and becoming a symbol of liberation.

  • Agustín de Iturbide: Key figure in Mexico's independence; shifted alliances from royalist to independence leaders and proclaimed himself Emperor briefly.

  • Dom Pedro: Son of the King of Portugal who declared Brazil's independence and became its first emperor, exemplifying a constitutional monarchy.

These individuals played pivotal roles in shaping the political landscape and ideologies of their time, influencing the paths toward independence and governance in their respective regions.

An Age of Ideologies

Congress of Vienna

  • Nobility in Europe aimed to suppress liberal thought.

  • Peasants generally supported a conservative structure governed by established churches.

  • Concerns over natural rights viewed as potential chaos.

  • Governments suppressed freedoms of the press and speech; military used to thwart rebellion.

  • Ideologies: systems of thought and beliefs.

Conservatives

  • Prefer the older order of traditional monarchies.

Liberals and Nationalists Seek Change

  • Motivated by Enlightenment ideas and the French Revolution.

  • Mainly comprised of the bourgeoisie (middle class).

  • Goals:

    • Written constitution.

    • Separation of powers.

    • Defense of natural rights.

    • Freedom of religion.

    • Universal male suffrage.

    • Free markets.

  • Nationalism:

    • Desire for distinct nation-states based on common language, history, and culture.

    • Often associated with intolerance and persecution against differing groups.

Clash of Philosophies

  • Three Main Schools of Thought in Early 1800s:

    • Conservatives: Landowners and nobles supporting traditional monarchies.

    • Liberals: Wealthy merchants and business owners advocating for limited democracy.

    • Radicals: Push for equality and liberty, advocating for universal voting rights.

Nationalism and Nation-States

  • Nationalism: Loyalty to a nation defined by culture and history.

  • Nation-State: A nation with its own government.

  • By 1815, only France, England, and Spain were recognized as nation-states.

  • Conservatives opposed nationalism while liberals and radicals supported it.

Central Europe Challenges the Old Order

  • Revolutions erupted across Europe despite severe crackdowns:

    • Serbia (1804-1813): Sought independence from Ottoman rule with support from Russia.

    • Greek Revolt (1821-1830): European powers aided in gaining independence but imposed a German king to prevent revolutions.

    • Other Challenges: Spain, Portugal, Italian states faced suppression, yet liberal ideas endured.

More French Revolutions

  • Louis XVIII’s Rule: Constitution and bicameral legislature retained monarchy.

  • Political Discontent: Radicals sought extreme changes while liberals called for more government involvement.

Charles X and the Revolution of 1830

  • Charles X: Absolutist monarch who rejected the constitutional charter, suspended legislature, restricted voting and press.

  • Revolution of 1830: Radicals and liberals barricaded streets, forcing Charles to abdicate and flee.

French Revolution of 1848

  • Causes: Economic recession, poor harvests, and frustration over Louis Philippe’s policies benefitting only the wealthy.

  • Effects: Barricades in Paris, abdication of Louis Philippe, power shifts to bourgeoisie amidst protests.

The Second Republic

  • Established post-revolution but was later dominated by bourgeois factions.

  • Louis Napoleon elected president, later becoming Emperor (Napoleon III) after a plebiscite.

The Spread of Revolutions

  • Impact of French Revolutions on Europe:"

    • Seen as a catalyst for revolutions in Belgium and Poland post-1830, and Austria, Italy, and Germany post-1848.

Revolutions of 1830 and 1848

  • Belgium: Secured independence from Dutch rule by appealing to distinct cultural identity (1830).

  • Poland: National rebellion crushed by Russian forces, highlighting fragmentation.

Revolution Surges Through Europe in 1848

  • Demand for Reforms: Made by students and workers in the Austrian Empire.

  • Italy: Nationalism fueled aspirations for unification.

  • Germany: Minimal gains despite student and worker pressures on the Prussian king to enact reforms.

Clemens von Metternich's Fall

  • Conservative Austrian prince who fled due to student uprisings.

  • Resulted in government reforms including the abolition of serfdom.

  • Louis Kossuth: Hungarian leader advocating for independence and reforms.

Latin America: Race and Class System

  • **Class Structure:

    • Peninsulares:** Spanish-born elites in colonial governance.

    • Creoles: American-born descendants of Spaniards, aspiring for military roles.

    • Mestizos: Individuals of mixed European and Indigenous descent.

    • Mulattos: Individuals of mixed European and African descent.

    • At the Bottom: Slaves and Indigenous population.

Revolts in Latin America

  • Context of Discontent: Enlightenment ideals invigorated revolutionary sentiments amidst three centuries of oppression.

  • Napoleonic Wars' Influence: Weakened Spain prompted opportunities for Latin American insurrections (1808).

Toussaint L'Ouverture in Haiti

  • Led a successful slave revolt against French rule.

  • Despite his capture, the rest of the Haitian people continued the fight leading to independence.

Mexico and Central America Revolt

  • Hidalgo's Call for Independence: 1810 Grito de Dolores speech prompted a revolt led by mestizos and natives.

  • Continued Resistance: After Hidalgo's capture, Father Jose Morelos continued to lead the rebellion until his own execution in 1815.

  • Shift in Political Climate: In 1820, changes in Spain allowed for the rise of reformers.

Mexico's Independence Achieved

  • Iturbide's Shift: Joined forces with rebels, declaring Mexico free from Spanish rule and briefly took the title of Emperor.

  • Emerging Republics in Central America: Various nations declared independence once Spanish control weakened.

Revolution Ignites South America

  • Bolívar and San Martín's Roles: Key figures in the fight for independence from Spanish rule. Both faced challenges and internal strife leading to civil wars.

  • Bolívar: Celebrated for liberating multiple nations and serving as president of Gran Colombia.

Brazil's Independence

  • Dom Pedro's Ascendancy: Proclaimed Brazil's independence from Portugal and ruled as a constitutional monarch until social turmoil led to the establishment of a republic in 1889.

Results of the Latin American Revolutions

  • Brazil achieved independence from Portugal.

  • Numerous Spanish and Portuguese colonies in Latin America gained independence.

  • Lack of unity among newly formed nations.

  • Economic struggles and increased poverty post-independence.

  • Rise of caudillos (military leaders) and dictators in the aftermath.

  • The U.S. declared it would not interfere in European affairs while expecting Europe to stay out of the Americas.

  • Any attempt to colonize Latin America would be considered a direct U.S. threat.

  • Supported through British naval power.