Theories of Violent Offending

Key Definitions

  • Violent Offending (Polaschek, 2019): Criminal behavior intended to harm or injure without consent.

  • Violence (World Report on Violence and Health, 2002): Intentional use of physical force resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or deprivation.

  • Family Violence Act 2018: Violence by a family member, including physical, sexual, and psychological abuse; coercive control.

  • Aggression (Heimann, 2022): Behavior intended to harm another living being.

  • Conflict (Heimann, 2022): Social behavior where one person feels impaired by another.

Types of Interpersonal Violence (NZCASS)

  • Physical violence and abuse: Assault, kidnapping, robbery.

  • Sexual violence and abuse: Sexual violation, indecent assault.

  • Psychological violence: Threats, damage to property.

    • Out of Scope: Indecent exposure, deprivation/neglect, coercive & controlling behaviors, household property damage.

Typology of Violence

  • Nature of Violence: Physical, Sexual, Psychological, Deprivation or neglect.

  • Directed at:

    • Self-directed (Suicidal behavior, Self-abuse)

    • Interpersonal (Family/partner violence, Community violence)

    • Collective violence (Social, political, economic)

  • Examples of Interpersonal Violence: Child, Partner, Elder, Acquaintance, Stranger.

Prevalence and Statistics

  • Homicide: More violent deaths than armed conflict.

  • At-Risk Groups:

    • Women: Most at risk of deadly violence at home.

    • Men: Most likely victims and perpetrators of homicide.

  • Global Homicide Trends (2000-2021): Fluctuations.

  • Homicide Rates (Per 100,000):

    • New Zealand (2021): 1.4

    • Australia (2021): 0.8

    • Canada (2021): 2.1

    • USA (2022): 7.5 (5.9 by firearm)

  • Violent Offending Statistics in NZ (2024):

    • 30% adults experienced an offence.

    • 7% experienced interpersonal violence.

    • 4% experienced a violent offence.

    • 3% experienced threats and damage.

    • 2% experienced sexual assault.

  • Family and Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) in NZ (2024):

    • 2.3% experienced family violence (6 incidents per 100 adults).

    • 1.4% experienced intimate partner violence (4 incidents per 100 adults).

    • 0.9% experienced violence by other family (2 incidents per 100 adults).

  • Lifetime Prevalence:

    • IPV: 16.6% of adults.

    • Sexual Violence: 24.6% of adults.

  • 2024 Prison Population in NZ (Most Serious Offence): High percentages for Sexual Assault (20.7%) and Acts Intended To Cause Injury (20.5%).

Offender Demographics

  • Men: 87% of homicide offenders; almost half are 30 or younger.

  • Relationship of offender to victims:

    • Couple: 15%

    • Parent: 4%

    • Child: 10%

    • Other Family: 6%

    • Not family but linked: 53%

    • Not family - other: 11%

  • Gender of offender:

    • Female: 1%

    • Male: 10%

Key Studies and Surveys

  • National Family Violence Survey: 16% total sample victimization.

  • Large meta-analyses: High rates of physical violence in heterosexual relationships.

  • NZ CASS (2018-2024): 3% of women and 1% of men report family violence.

  • Christchurch Health and Development Study, Dunedin Longitudinal Study: Similar victimization and perpetration rates.

  • Archer (2018): Severity differences in partner violence.

  • Intimate partner deaths in Aotearoa New Zealand (2009-2018): 76% male offenders, 70% female victims.

  • Groups with significantly higher rates of lifetime experience of IPV than the NZ average (NZCVS, 2020)

Summary

  • Many types of violent offending; distinguish legal and psychological constructs.

  • Violent offending is a minority of overall crime but remains a serious problem.

  • Rates depend on data collection method and time period.