Social Differentiation among Tribes: Detailed Notes

Social Differentiation Among Tribes

20.1 Introduction

  • Human beings are inherently social and identify with groups either voluntarily or involuntarily.
  • Individuals shape groups, and groups shape individual behavior, leading to diverse personalities and group types.
  • Societies range from egalitarian to highly stratified and complex.
  • Even in egalitarian societies, role differentiation and stratification exist, which is termed 'social differentiation.'
  • Social differentiation occurs when personal differences, inherited or acquired, are used to allocate social tasks and positions.
  • Social differentiation is a broad and pervasive concept with outcomes seen in:
    • The complex of roles and statuses within a society's institutions.
    • The complex of roles intersecting these institutions (Stebbins, 1987).
  • Examples of differentiated roles include division of labor, social stratification, sex, gender, age, and ethnicity, operating at both core and periphery of institutions.
  • Roles can be ascribed (gained from birth or age, e.g., sex, age, race) or achieved (earned during life, e.g., power, gender, social class).
  • Social differentiation is related to division of labor and social stratification but is not identical.
  • Division of labor focuses on group and organizational functions, while social differentiation includes cross-institutional roles like deviance and community status.
  • Social stratification is a hierarchical system where inequalities are institutionalized and passed down generations, affecting life opportunities based on class, gender, ethnicity, etc.
  • Social differentiation is a broader term than social stratification.

20.2 Definition of Social Differentiation

  • Eisenstadt: Social differentiation exists in every social unit because people with different characteristics perform different and interrelated tasks and roles.
  • Ritzer et al (1979): Social differentiation is a hierarchical system where inherited and socially acquired personal differences become the basis for accomplishing social tasks and filling social positions, which leads to social inequality and stratification.
  • Stebbins (1987): Social differentiation is a broad social process distinguishing people by age, sex, deviance, ethnicity, and social stratification roles.
  • Sorokin (1962; 1972): Social differentiation is categorized into intragroup (differentiation within a group, e.g., division of labor in a family) and intergroup (differentiation between groups, e.g., religious organizations).
  • Intragroup differentiation is stratified when subgroups are ranked as ‘higher’ or ‘lower’.
  • Herbert Spencer (1967): As society grows, its components differentiate but are mutually interdependent, increasing structural complexity.
  • Spencer (1967:8) on social differentiation: “As [society] grows, its parts become unlike: it exhibits increase of structure. The unlike parts simultaneously assume activities of unlike kinds. These activities are not simply different, but the differences are so related as to make one another possible. The reciprocal aid thus given, causes mutual dependence of the parts. And the mutually dependent parts, living by and for another, form an aggregate constituted on the same general principle as is an individual organism.”

20.3 Types of Social Differentiation

  • Durkheim's 'division of labour' explains social differentiation based on societal solidarity:
    • Mechanical Solidarity: Found in smaller, non-literate societies with homogeneous values, simple division of labor, and loyalty to tradition.
    • Organic Solidarity: Found in modern industrial societies with complex division of labor, cooperation, and specialized roles, akin to the functional unity of a biological organism.
  • Svalastoga (1988) identifies four major forms:
    • Functional differentiation (division of labor).
    • Rank differentiation (differential distribution of resources, status, and power).
    • Custom differentiation (varying rules for behavior).
    • Competitive differentiation (success of some implies failure of others).
  • Sorokin’s (1962; 1972) classification includes ‘unibonded’ and ‘multibonded’ groups.

20.4 Sorokin’s Classification

  • Sorokin classifies social differentiation based on bonding nature into:
    • Unibonded Groups: Members are united by one main value or interest.
      • Organized around biosocial values:
        • Race.
        • Sex.
        • Age.
      • Organized around specified socio-cultural values:
        • Kinship groups.
        • Neighborhoods based on territorial proximity.
        • National and ethnic groups based on language, culture, and history.
        • State (governmental) groups.
        • Occupational groups.
        • Economic groups.
        • Religious groups.
        • Political groups.
        • Ideological and cultural groups (science, philosophy, arts, ethics, education, sport).
        • Nominal group of the elite (genius, leaders, historical personages).
    • Multibonded Groups: Formed by the amalgamation of two or more unibonded values.
      • Main types of family formations.
      • Clans and tribes.
      • Nations.
      • Castes.
      • Social orders (“estates”).
      • Social classes.

20.4 Social Differentiation Among Tribes

  • Social differentiation among tribes is mainly based on descent groups, sex, and age but varies across tribes depending on their social systems, traditions, and beliefs.
  • Matrilineal societies differ from patrilineal and patriarchal ones, with variations within each.
  • No uniform pattern of social differentiation exists among tribes.
20.4.1 Social Differentiation by Kinship and Descent Groups
  • Kinship and descent groups are fundamental bases of social differentiation.
  • A person's status, rights, and duties are determined by kinship and descent systems, reflecting ascribed roles and statuses.
  • Kinship refers to relationships by blood or marriage. Rivers (1914) defines kinship as ‘a social recognition of biological ties’.
  • Consanguineal relatives are related by birth, while affinal relatives are related through marriage.
  • Kinship systems distinguish kin categories and organize social groups.
  • Descent is a narrower term establishing affiliations with parents.
  • Descent groups are relatives lineally related through a common ancestor.
  • A person's status is determined by genealogical relationships.
  • Kinship systems are classified into classificatory and descriptive (Morgan, 1871).
  • Classificatory system: Terms have multiple meanings for varying relationships (e.g., ‘father’ for many men outside the immediate family).
  • Descriptive system: Specific terms for specific relationships (e.g., ‘father’ only for one’s immediate father).
  • Descent groups are unilineal or cognatic (non-unilineal).
  • Unilineal descent traces ancestry through either the father’s or mother’s line.
  • Patrilineal descent: Ancestry traced through the father’s line.
  • Matrilineal descent: Ancestry traced through the mother’s line.
  • Unilineal descent groups include lineages, clans, phratries, and moieties, arranged in ascending magnitude.
  • Lineage: Unilineal descent group tracing ancestry up to ten generations; can be patrilineages or matrilineages, with segments and sub-segments.
  • Clan: Unilineal descent group of ten or more generations, believing descent from a common ancestor; may consist of multiple lineages.
  • Phratry: Comprises two or more clans; common in North-Eastern Himalayan region and central India (e.g., Ao Nagas, Raj Konds, Murias).
  • Moiety: (French, moitie,‘half’) Consists of two unilineal descent groups, also known as ‘dual organisation’; may be exogamous, agamous, or endogamous (e.g., Todas, Nagas, Tharus, Bondos).
  • Anal Nagas: Society divided into exogamous moieties (mochal and moshum) with phratries within each.
  • Ao Nagas: Agamous moieties (mongsen and chungli) further divided into exogamous clans.
  • T.C. Das (1953) suggests tribal organization in India reveals seven types:
    1) Family — Local Group – Tribe
    2) Families – Clans – Tribe
    3) Families – Moieties – Tribe
    4) Families – Clans – Phratries – Tribe
    5) Families – Clans – Phratries – Moieties – Tribe
    6) Families – Clans – Sub-tribe – Tribe
    7) Families – Sub-clans – Orthogamous Clans or Selected Clans – Tribe.
  • Dube (1971) opines minimum sphere for an Indian tribal design will include in itself four spheres, i.e., individual forming families, families forming clan or local group and clans forming the tribe.
20.4.2 Social Differentiation by Sex
  • Classification based on biological division into male and female.
  • Societies divide roles based on sex.
  • Women expected to engage most of their labour and time in domestic affairs due to childbearing and nurturing.
  • Women perform lighter works, while men perform heavier works due to physical strength, though this varies.
  • Subsistence agricultural societies: women have a large share in agriculture and domestic roles.
  • Women rear children, perform household chores, collect water and firewood, clear land, plant and weed, harvest crops, grow vegetables, and sell produce.
  • Men perform heavier works outside home, such as warfare, hunting, fishing, and herding.
  • Men also cut firewood, plough fields, clear jungles for cultivation, construct irrigation canals, and engage in carpentry, trade, and commerce.
  • Men have jural authority, make policies and laws, make decisions, and run village administration; women are excluded from village councils.
  • Roles overlap in many areas: women fish and clear jungles; men carry firewood and participate in plantation and harvest.
  • Segregation based on sex: Tangkhul Nagas have youth dormitory systems (mayarlong for boys, shanaolong for girls).
20.4.3 Social Differentiation by Age
  • Societies divide population by age due to varying physical and mental strength.
  • Phases of human development: childhood to adulthood to old age.
  • Children and aged members depend on adult members.
  • Tribes have life phases with rituals for formal recognition of adulthood, known as ‘rite of passage’ or ‘rite de passage’.
  • Nagas have age group differentiations; other Indian tribes have similar systems.
  • Naga dormitory system: traditional learning institution based on age and sex.
  • Tangkhul Nagas: long system (mayarlong for boys, shanaolong for girls).
  • Ao Nagas: arichu system.
  • A boy who has attained about 15 years is entitled to be registered in the traditional arichu system.
  • Ao Nagas: young child goes through processes for attaining adulthood (manhood).
  • Arichu system stages:
    • Tzuir: Physical test with rigorous training.
    • Tenapang Yhanga: Teach younger members; marriage occurs at this stage.
    • Tekumchet Yhanga: Masters of the organization; exempt from hard work and punishment.
    • Juzen: Senior members; take care of the system.
    • Pener: Old age group; can enter village administration.
  • Marriage during adulthood: married individuals perform roles and have expectations different from unmarried individuals.
  • Nagas: marriage makes a person eligible for village council membership.
20.4.4 Social Differentiation by Rank and Hierarchy
  • Tribal societies recognize members and/or families by heredity, known as ‘rank’ or ‘ranking’ system.
  • Hierarchy exists where certain lines of descent are superior, with specific status and privileges.
  • Higher rank members are regarded as ‘royal’ families, and lower ranks are commoners.
  • Hierarchical order exists even among commoners.
  • Nagas: village chief has the highest status, with privileges such as free and voluntary service from villagers.
  • Families of a clan or phratry are ranked by seniority of male descendants.
  • Konyak Nagas: apt example of social ranking system.
  • Similar ranking: Bhutias and Tharus, Andh.
  • Tharus: community divided into ‘higher’ and ‘lower’ sections; higher section has endogamous sub-divisions (kuries), restricting intermarriage and interdining.
  • Andhs of Andhra Pradesh: Vartati consider themselves superior to Khaltati, restricting intermarriage.
20.4.5 Social Differentiation by Occupation
  • Differentiation of roles in tribal societies is understood through traditional and modern trends.
  • Traditional: family role as crucial factor based on production and consumption of resources, based on sex, age, expertise, and statuses.
  • Individuals perform roles according to societal norms, with roles not well-defined; a person good in one occupation performs in others.
  • Agriculturist is also a good artisan, and vice versa.
  • Village level: role differentiations in religious and political aspects; the chief of the village plays specific roles according to ascribed status.
  • Modern: traditional norms eroded by modern education, modernization, and diversification of occupations.
  • Educated tribals seek jobs outside the village in town or city.
  • Tribals succeed overseas.
  • Educated tribals experience changes in lifestyle and attitude, leading to cultural erosion and detachment from village roots.
  • Village situation no longer fits the lives of educated tribals.
  • Differentiation by profession and/or occupation is prevalent, leading to the emergence of a class system.
20.4.6 Social Differentiation by Education
  • Education: significant factor for social differentiation in modern days, affecting occupational attainment or mobility.
  • Education is influenced by backgrounds of class, ethnicity, race, and locality.
  • Educated tribals find themselves in different situations, adapting to new environments and adopting new norms and cultures.
  • Tribals differentiate from the original community in terms of habit, attitude, and worldview.
  • Tribals take jobs outside the village and settle in new localities.
  • Second generation (children) miss cultural values and norms.
  • Education effects social differentiation among tribals in most tribal areas.
20.4.7 Social Differentiation by Religion
  • Two kinds of social differentiation: based on ‘the ascribed’ and ‘the achieved’ factors.
  • Traditional societies: role differentiation due to ascribed positions and statuses, varying from tribe to tribe.
  • Tribes recognize roles of certain members (eldest, youngest, man, woman) who perform religious roles.
  • Tangkhul Nagas: head of the clan has religious obligation; village chief performs religious roles, such as agricultural cycle rituals.
  • Modern: complex and differentiated due to the existence of various religious groups and denominations.
  • A tribal group is differentiated from another tribal or non-tribal group with a different religion.
  • Christian tribals: differences of denominations (Roman Catholic, Baptist, Methodist, etc.) create social differentiations, with separate organizations in and outside the community.
  • Different religious denominations carry out different roles and functions.
  • Social differentiation of believers of different religions and/or faiths occurs.
  • Christians differentiate from Hindus, Sikhs from Buddhists, etc.
20.4.8 Social Differentiation by Language
  • Language: a major role in social differentiation in tribal societies.
  • People speaking the same tribal language are closer and identify as fellow tribesmen.
  • Groups are differentiated based on language from tribe to tribe or tribe to non-tribal communities.
  • Social differentiation occurs within the same tribal group in multi-dialectic situations.
  • People identify with the cultural and dialectic zone they live in.
  • Villages maintain their own entity and affairs, with self-governing mechanisms (government).
  • Villages are run democratically with socialism, with a chief of the village and representatives of clans and commoners.
  • Tangkhul Nagas: example of language and/or dialect differentiation playing a role in social segregation and social differentiation.
20.4.9 Social Differentiation by Association
  • Association formation is based on kinship and affinity.
  • Clan associations are prevalent for cooperation and/or protection.
  • Tribal societies have associations beyond kinship, such as political affiliations for achieving goals and interests.
  • Cult associations exist where members participate in rituals addressed to a divinity, known as ‘secret societies’.
  • Associations based on sex and age: women's societies for secular and/or religious purposes; youth associations for unmarried men and women (youth clubs).
  • Associations based on marital status: Tangkhul Nagas have ‘gahar long’ (married men council) for village welfare and development.
  • Associations for economic purposes: ‘credit association’ or ‘cooperatives’ (e.g., ‘marup’ in Manipur).
20.4.10 Social Differentiation by Territory and Physical Environment
  • Territorial differentiation is unique to tribal societies.
  • Notion of territoriality: from simplest (Chenchus) to more advanced (Mizos and Nagas) and among transhumant-pastoral societies (Gaddis).
  • Territorial perceptions differ among tribal groups.
  • Nagas: tradition of territorial differentiation through village formation.
  • Naga village: either a republic or a monarchy with elements of independence, with a well-demarcated territorial jurisdiction.
  • Villages cannot encroach on another village's jurisdiction.
  • Several villages constitute a tribe.
  • Rengma Nagas and Konyak Nagas: dual territorial divisions.
  • New villages are founded from parental villages.
  • Village sub-divisions or localities occupied/dominated by a clan.
  • Naga villages: localities called ‘khel’ or ‘tang’ where a clan is concentrated.
  • Each khel or tang is a mini-village.
  • Territorial local groups are observed among other Indian tribes (Kamars, Chenchus).
  • Roles are differentiated based on climate, leading to differences in the nature of work performed at different seasons.
  • Climate variation plays a role in social differentiation.

20.5 Conclusion

  • Human society has always been divided into societies striving for solidarity within and among members.
  • Social differentiation: statuses, roles, strata, and groups exist within a society.
  • Comprehensive classification: Pitirim A. Sorokin divides social differentiation into ‘Unibonded groups’ and ‘Multibonded groups’.
  • Social differentiations among tribes and simple societies are mainly based on descent, sex, age, rank, and hierarchy.
  • Patterns differ across tribes, with variations in their social systems, traditions, and beliefs.

20.6 Further Reading

  • Bowles, S. 1971. Unequal education and the reproduction of the social division of labor. Review of Radical Political Economics, 3:1-30.
  • Malinowski, Brownislaw 1960 (1944). A Scientific Theory of Culture, and Other Essays. Oxford University Press.
  • Tonnies, Ferdinand 1957 (1887). Community and Society. Translated and edited by Charles P. Loomis. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press.