2.6

Imperial Presidency: Historian Arthur Schlesinger described this presidency as a significant increase in power domestically, prompted by wars abroad.

How have presidents interpreted and explained their use of formal and informal powers?
Citizens expect more from the president due to the evolving nature of the office, leading to ongoing challenges against the constitutional framework.

The presidency is influenced by:
- Article II of the Constitution
- Five constitutional amendments
- Federal laws
- Supreme Court decisions
- Customs and precedents
Designed as a limited office to execute Congress's policies, the presidency has emerged as a dominant force in governance.

Critics of the Constitution raised concerns over a single executive.
Hamilton's Argument: A unitary executive fosters accountability and avoids the confusion and blame that come with multiple leaders.
Energy in a single executive is crucial to effective governance.

Central Claim: The necessity of a single chief executive.
Argument for Better Government: Unity reduces conflicts and enhances accountability.
Implications: The behavior of the chief executive could become more assertive and centralized.

Shaped by historical contexts and unforeseen events.
George Washington's Example: First president, defined the role with modesty, set crucial precedents for future presidents.
Early Presidents: Followed Washington's example, largely respecting congressional authority. Notable actions:
- Jefferson: Louisiana Purchase without congressional approval.
- Madison: Leadership during the War of 1812.
- Monroe: Established the Monroe Doctrine.

Spawned during significant national crises, leading to presidents gradually asserting more power:
- Arthur Schlesinger Jr.: Coined the term to describe the Nixon presidency marking a notable shift in the balance of power.
- Lockean Philosophy: Support for executive power during emergencies due to slow legislative responses.

Andrew Jackson (1829-1837): Displays a shift toward greater executive power through personality and assertive action:
- Expanded the use of the veto, increased his popularity among common people, creating tension with Congress.

Abraham Lincoln (1861-1865): Expanded presidential power significantly during the Civil War:
- Suspended habeas corpus, heavily utilized military authority for crisis management.
- Actions justified by necessity to preserve the Union.

U.S. engagement in world affairs led to expanded presidential powers under:
- Theodore Roosevelt: Promoted a proactive, assertive foreign policy based on strong executive action.
- Woodrow Wilson: Reinvented the role of the president in international affairs and domestic governance.

FDR (1933-1945): A pivotal figure in expanding the presidency during the Great Depression:
- Addressed extensive social and economic reforms through the New Deal.
- Increased federal government size and scope.
- Assumed controversial wartime powers following World War II and managed civil liberties amid security concerns.

Post-WWII Era: The presidency’s strength intensified due to:
- Cold War tensions
- Military actions
- Heightened expectations for protection against terrorism.

A corrective measure post-Vietnam War to balance presidential war powers with congressional oversight:
- Allows military engagement with notification to Congress within 48 hours, requiring congressional approval within specified timeframes.

Obama and Trump: Continued expansion of presidential power in military actions against terrorism, often with controversies surrounding congressional oversight.
- Trump's Tenure: Notable uses of executive privilege, including border funding declarations and controversial military strikes.

Assessing how presidents have leveraged both formal and informal powers throughout history.