Absolutism

Timeframe: 1660 to 1789.
- Marks the restoration of the English monarchy and the personal rule of Louis XIV of France.
- Ends with the eruption of the French Revolution.
Definition: Political theory promoting the idea that rulers hold complete sovereignty.
- Absolute sovereignty includes the ability to make laws, dispense justice, create bureaucracies, declare war, and tax without external approval.
- Supported by claims of divine right suggesting rulers govern by a divine mandate akin to a father's authority over his family.
- Many believed order in European life could only be achieved through exalted sovereign rulers.

The era of absolutism coincides with the age of empire.
- By 1660, major European powers (French, Spanish, Portuguese, English, Dutch) had established colonies in the Americas and Asia.
Intense rivalry among these colonial powers leading to colonial aspects in European conflicts.
- By the mid-eighteenth century, wars in Europe were increasingly fueled by colonial interests and global trade.

Other forms of governance exist:
- England, Scotland, Dutch Republic, Switzerland: Limited monarchies or republics.
- Russia: Extreme autocracy under the Tsar, but practical absolutism was limited by nobility and harsh conditions.
- Even absolute monarchs depended on the consent of subjects and nobility; revolts could force concessions.

Louis XIV of France as a key figure in absolutism.
- Childhood experiences with unrest shaped his perception of authority.
- Pursued absolute power to protect the French state from instability.
Aims of absolutist monarchs:
- Command armed forces, control legal systems, and manage finances without obstacles from nobility or regional influences.
The creation of a centralized bureaucracy loyal directly to the monarch.
- Costs of bureaucracy pushed monarchs to weaken noble, clergy, and regional powers.

Protestant churches under state control early on; Catholic states like Spain and France pushed for nominal national control over the church.
- Notable example: Charles III of Spain gained authority over ecclesiastical appointments.
Nobility as the primary threat to absolutism:
- Approaches included:
- Institutional power reduction while enhancing social prestige (e.g., Louis XIV at Versailles).
- Lifetime service required by Peter the Great of Russia.
- Catherine II granted the Russian nobility economic privileges for political power surrender.
- Joseph II of Austria confronted nobility by equalizing tax burdens.

Struggles between monarchs and nobles over governance, often influenced local administrations (e.g., undermining provincial authority).
Ensuring noble cooperation became vital for monarchs:
- Nobles required to reside at the royal court.
- The development of vested interests through cooperative relationships often replaced confrontation.

Not all areas were absolute monarchies:
- Venice's republican oligarchy.
- The United Provinces (Holland) formed by territories resisting Spain, reflecting anti-monarchical sentiments.
The English Parliament emerged as a political force, known for its longevity and development over time.

Restoration in 1660 resolved the debate over England’s government future as a monarchy.
- Charles II's reign (1660-1685) marked by promises of limited religious tolerance and adherence to the Magna Carta.
Charles II's personality and court culture contrasted sharply with the austerity under the previous Puritan regime.
- His court was known for excess, reflecting the desire to move away from Puritan morality.

Charles II's sympathy toward Catholicism led to political tensions with Protestant factions, particularly over his brother’s succession.
Repercussions from attempts to circumvent parliamentary laws and the rising power of the Whigs.
Charles's manipulation of local governance increased his control but created legislative unrest that shaped James II's subsequent rule.

James II's reign marked by zealous Catholicism and aggressive religious policies, culminating in the Glorious Revolution of 1688.
- Events including the birth of a Catholic son polarized public sentiment and led to opposition from both Whigs and Tories.
The invitation of William of Orange led to a virtually bloodless coup.
- Resulted in William and Mary assuming the throne under the Bill of Rights, reaffirming parliamentary power and civil liberties.

The Bill of Rights asserted that monarchs are subject to law, limiting their powers.
Acts of religious tolerance for Protestant dissenters further established the political landscape.
Monarchy became intertwined with parliamentary governance; no monarch could govern without parliamentary consent thereafter.

John Locke's two treatises on government emerged as a major counter to absolutism.
- Proposed that humanity initially existed in a state of nature with natural rights to life, liberty, and property.
- Governments must protect these rights and are limited by authority granted by consent.
His ideas provided the intellectual foundation for later revolutions.