Chapter 14 Introductory Essay: 1960-1968 Notes

1960-1968: Societal Change, International Developments, and Policy Debates

Context for Societal Change (1960-1968)

  • Optimism at the Start:
    • The U.S. economy was strong and preeminent.
    • There was a broad anti-communist consensus.
    • African Americans and women sought greater equality.
    • President John F. Kennedy (JFK) represented a new generation and called for progress.
  • Fragmentation by Decade's End:
    • Deep divisions emerged over the Vietnam War.
    • Social movements challenged the status quo.
    • The economy faltered.
    • Distrust in politicians and government grew.

Election of 1960

  • John F. Kennedy (Democrat):
    • Born in 1917, grandson of Irish-Catholic immigrants.
    • Father Joseph P. Kennedy was a wealthy investor and politician.
    • Served in the U.S. Navy during wartime.
    • Elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and the Senate in 1952.
    • Campaigned on the "New Frontier" slogan.
  • Richard M. Nixon (Republican):
    • Age 47 in 1960, older than Kennedy.
    • World War II Navy veteran.
    • Elected to the House in 1946 and the Senate in 1950.
    • Eisenhower's running mate in 1952.
    • Grew up in Yorba Linda, California, with fewer advantages than Kennedy.
    • Nicknamed "Tricky Dick" due to controversial tactics.
    • Represented the growing "Sun Belt" region.
  • Similar Platforms:
    • Both were political centrists and committed "Cold Warriors."
  • Television's Impact:
    • The 1960 election highlighted the importance of style and image.
    • Kennedy's telegenic appearance helped him win televised debates.
    • Kennedy won by less than 1% of the popular vote.
  • Kennedy's Inauguration:
    • Admired for its call to public service: "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country."
    • Pledged to "pay any price, bear any burden…to assure the survival and the success of liberty."

Foreign Policy in the Kennedy Administration

  • "Missile Gap" Charge:
    • Kennedy claimed the Eisenhower administration allowed the Soviet Union to surpass the U.S. in ICBM development.
    • In reality, the U.S. was ahead, but the Soviets were catching up.
  • Cuba and Fidel Castro:
    • Fidel Castro led a communist revolution in Cuba, overthrowing a U.S.-backed dictatorship in 1959.
    • Castro's government seized private property, formed an alliance with the Soviet Union.
  • Bay of Pigs Invasion (April 17, 1961):
    • The Eisenhower administration planned an invasion by Cuban exiles.
    • 1,400 invaders landed at the Bay of Pigs but were defeated by Castro's forces.
    • Kennedy took public blame for the failure.
  • Vienna Summit (June 1961):
    • Kennedy met with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev.
    • Khrushchev attempted to intimidate Kennedy, who felt the need to make U.S. power credible.
  • Cuban Missile Crisis (Fall 1962):
    • U.S. spy planes discovered Soviet missile bases in Cuba, which could give the Soviet Union first-strike capabilities.
    • Kennedy blockaded Cuba, preventing Soviet freighters from delivering missiles.
    • Khrushchev recalled freighters; Kennedy secretly pledged to dismantle U.S. missiles in Turkey and not invade Cuba.
    • The crisis was the most dangerous moment of the Cold War, undermining the logic of mutual assured destruction (MAD).
  • Vietnam:
    • The U.S. had been increasing aid to South Vietnam since its division in 1954.
    • By the time Kennedy took office, there were 800 U.S. military advisors in Vietnam.

Worsening Situation in South Vietnam

  • Ngo Dinh Diem's Government:
    • President Ngo Dinh Diem was an autocrat who ruled over a dissatisfied population.
    • He was a Catholic in a predominantly Buddhist country.
  • National Liberation Front (NLF):
    • Also called the Viet Cong, the NLF gained strength in rural areas.
  • Buddhist Protests:
    • Buddhists protested Diem's regime, calling for free elections.
    • Diem responded with repression.
  • Counterinsurgency Doctrine:
    • Kennedy believed in countering guerrilla insurgents with trained units using unconventional tactics.
    • U.S. Army Special Forces (Green Berets) would use air mobility via helicopters.
  • Battle of Ap Bac (January 2, 1963):
    • A force of 350 Viet Cong soldiers defeated Saigon forces four times their number.
    • The Viet Cong shot down five helicopters and slipped away intact.
  • Increased U.S. Involvement:
    • The Kennedy administration increased the number of military advisors to 17,000 by November 1963.
  • Diem's Assassination:
    • Kennedy's advisors encouraged South Vietnamese generals to launch a coup.
    • Diem was arrested and executed on November 2, 1963.
  • Kennedy's Intentions:
    • There is no compelling evidence Kennedy would have withdrawn from Vietnam had he lived.
    • Political risks and maintaining American credibility were high concerns.

Domestic Policy in the Kennedy Administration

  • Limited Domestic Reform:
    • Kennedy supported some measures but focused more on foreign policy.
  • Area Redevelopment Act (1961):
    • Provided loans to businesses relocating to depressed areas.
  • Manpower Development and Training Act (1962):
    • Created programs for retraining workers displaced by automation.
  • "New Economics" or Keynesianism:
    • Kennedy was persuaded to use government fiscal policy to stimulate the economy.
    • A tax cut aimed to stimulate businesses and consumer spending.
  • Michael Harrington's "The Other America":
    • Harrington argued that poverty was more widespread than affluent Americans realized, with 40 million to 50 million Americans affected.
    • Poverty included poor health, substance abuse, mental distress, and lowered aspirations, passed down through generations.
    • Harrington advocated for societal help for the poor.
  • "War on Poverty":
    • Kennedy asked his economic advisors to prepare legislation for a "war on poverty."

Kennedy's Assassination

  • Dallas, Texas (November 22, 1963):
    • Kennedy was shot and killed while riding in an open car.
    • Lee Harvey Oswald was charged with the murder.
    • Oswald was later shot and killed by Jack Ruby.
  • Warren Commission:
    • The commission concluded that Oswald acted alone.

Civil Rights Movement

  • Greensboro Sit-Ins (February 1, 1960):
    • Four African American students sat at a Woolworth's lunch counter and were refused service.
    • The sit-ins spread to over 50 southern cities.
  • Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC):
    • Formed in April 1960 by veterans of the sit-ins.
    • SNCC played a key role in the southern freedom struggle.
  • Freedom Riders:
    • The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) launched freedom rides to integrate buses and waiting rooms.
    • The riders faced violent attacks.
    • Robert F. Kennedy negotiated an agreement to desegregate southern bus facilities.
  • Birmingham Campaign (1963):
    • SCLC challenged segregation in Birmingham, Alabama.
    • Eugene "Bull" Connor used police dogs and fire hoses against protesters, including children.
    • The events in Birmingham were a turning point in the fight for equal rights.
    • President Kennedy renewed his support for a civil rights bill.
  • March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom:
    • Led by Dr. King, drew 25 million protesters in August 1963.
    • King delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech.

Women’s Movement

  • "Rights Revolution":
    • The civil rights movement inspired a "rights revolution."
  • "Second Wave" Feminism:
    • Betty Friedan's "The Feminine Mystique" (1963) sparked the movement, addressing the dissatisfaction of middle-class white women.
    • Friedan described the "problem with no name," where women felt unfulfilled in their domestic roles.
  • National Organization for Women (NOW):
    • Formed in 1966 by female activists.
    • Initially focused on litigation and lobbying.
    • Younger women joined NOW and pushed for more radical tactics.
  • "The Personal Is Political":
    • This slogan emphasized the need to challenge inequalities in relationships and at home.

Election of 1964

  • Lyndon B. Johnson (LBJ):
    • Became president after Kennedy's assassination.
    • A politically connected Texan who had served in the House and Senate.
  • Barry Goldwater:
    • The Republican Party nominated conservative senator Barry Goldwater.
    • Goldwater's declaration that "extremism in the defense of liberty is no vice!" was not well-received.
  • Johnson's Victory:
    • Johnson called for a "Great Society" and won by a landslide with 61 percent of the popular vote.
    • Democrats gained strong majorities in Congress.

The Great Society

  • Civil Rights Act of 1964:
    • Banned discrimination in public places.
  • Economic Opportunity Act:
    • Fulfilled Johnson's call for an "unconditional war on poverty."
    • Included job-training programs, childhood enrichment programs, the Food Stamp program, and VISTA.
  • Legislation in 1965:
    • Johnson proposed 87 bills to Congress, and 84 passed.
    • Included Medicare and Medicaid.
  • Voting Rights Act:
    • Protected equal rights after the Civil Rights Act.
  • Environmental Initiatives:
    • Clean Water Act and Clean Air Act.
  • Immigration Act of 1965:
    • Ended discriminatory quota systems from the 1920s, leading to increased immigration from Asia, Africa, and Latin America.

The Warren Court

  • Expanded Constitutional Rights:
    • The Supreme Court, under Chief Justice Earl Warren, broadened the definition of constitutional rights.
  • Griswold v. Connecticut (1965):
    • Struck down a ban on disseminating information about contraception, citing the "right to privacy."
  • Roe v. Wade (1973):
    • Overturned state laws banning abortion.
    • Considered a challenge to traditional morality by conservatives.
  • Rights of the Accused:
    • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): All accused persons are entitled to an attorney.
    • Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Police must inform the accused of their rights before questioning.
  • Baker v. Carr (1962) and Reynolds v. Sims (1964):
    • The court addressed legislative districts needing to be equal in population, implementing the principle of "one man, one vote."
  • Impact:
    • The court helped advance individual liberties but contributed to political polarization.

Johnson and Vietnam

  • Escalation of Conflict:
    • Despite assuring voters he wouldn't send "American boys" to fight in Vietnam, Johnson considered escalating the conflict.
  • Gulf of Tonkin Resolution:
    • Following an incident in the Gulf of Tonkin, Johnson ordered retaliatory airstrikes and secured congressional approval of the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, serving as a declaration of war.
  • Operation Rolling Thunder:
    • In the spring of 1965, Johnson initiated Operation Rolling Thunder (an air assault on North Vietnam) and sent troops into combat.
  • Increased Casualties:
    • As troop numbers increased, so did American casualties.
  • Tet Offensive (January 1968):
    • The Communist launched a surprise attack on Saigon and other cities.
    • Although a military defeat for the Communists, it undermined public support for the war in the United States.
    • Led to Johnson's decision not to seek reelection in 1968.

Student Movements

  • Students for a Democratic Society (SDS):
    • Founded in 1962, SDS was a prominent "New Left" organization.
    • The Port Huron Statement advocated "participatory democracy."
  • Freedom Summer (1964):
    • Northern college students traveled to Mississippi to participate in voter registration, spearheaded by SNCC.
  • Free Speech Movement (FSM):
    • The University of California, Berkeley, banned on-campus political activities.
    • The FSM, led by Mario Savio, used civil disobedience tactics.
  • Anti-War Movement:
    • The war in Vietnam became a major mobilizing issue for students.
    • SDS organized anti-war rallies and marches.
    • Protests grew, with some draft-eligible men becoming draft resisters.
  • March on the Pentagon (October 1967):
    • 75,000 protesters gathered, with some breaking through military police lines.

Counterculture

  • Baby Boom Generation:
    • The "baby boom" generation (born 1946-1964) influenced consumer demands and youth culture.
  • Higher Education:
    • College became a rite of passage for middle-class youth, extending adolescence.
  • Beat Generation:
    • The "Beat Generation" influenced attitudes toward sex, race, drugs, and music.
  • Folk Music:
    • The folk music craze contributed to a sense of generational identity.
  • The Beatles:
    • Evolved into psychedelically garbed musicians, shaping American culture.

Civil Rights and Black Power

  • Voting Rights Campaign:
    • After the Civil Rights Act, the movement focused on voting rights.
  • Selma March (1965):
    • Demonstrators marched across the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma, Alabama, and were violently confronted by police.
    • Led to the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
  • Watts Riots (August 1965):
    • Rioting broke out in Watts, Los Angeles, after the arrest of a black man.
  • Black Power Movement:
    • Younger black militants like Stokely Carmichael challenged integration.
    • Malcolm X advocated for racial separatism.
  • Black Panther Party:
    • Founded in 1966 by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale.
    • The Panthers advocated self-defense and captured media attention with their militant style.

Rise of the Conservative Movement

  • Conservative Resurgence:
    • Conservatives unified and redrew the map of American electoral politics.
  • Sun Belt Influence:
    • Conservatives in the Sun Belt reinforced the party's conservative direction.
  • White Southern Electorate:
    • The white southern electorate shifted from the Democratic Party.
  • Backlash Against Liberalism:
    • Urban, white, working-class voters rejected liberalism.
  • Ronald Reagan:
    • Elected governor of California in 1966, representing the rise of the conservative movement.

Conclusion

  • The 1960s were a tumultuous decade, marked by the Vietnam War, social divisions, and distrust in institutions.
  • The shocks of the decade continued into the following years.

Review Questions

  1. The 1960 presidential election featured Democratic and Republican candidates who:
    • came from similar family backgrounds
    • both entered national politics during the Great Depression
    • both entered Congress in 1946 after serving in World War II
  2. The term Sun Belt refers to:
    • the region encompasses states with fast-growing populations along the southern border
  3. The Sun Belt has all the following except:
    • the Great Plains states
  4. The 1960 presidential election was noteworthy because:
    • the use of televised debates became important in presidential political campaigns
  5. The Port Huron Statement was the founding document of which group?
    • Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)
  6. The earliest event in President John Kennedy’s foreign policy dealings with Cuba was the:
    • outbreak of the Cuban Revolution and the fall of Cuban President Fulgencio Batista
  7. President John Kennedy decided he could prop up the South Vietnamese government using counterinsurgency tactics which would:
    • use counterguerrilla tactics by highly trained units using unconventional tactics
  8. The results of the economic policies of the Eisenhower Administration caused President John Kennedy to:
    • move toward Keynesian policies to stimulate the economy
  9. A central idea of author Michael Harrington’s book The Other America was that:
    • poverty in the United States was more widespread than people thought
  10. The sit-ins at the Woolworth lunch counters in Greensboro North Carolina most immediately led to:
    • creation of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
  11. Civil disobedience and direct action were demonstrated in all the following events except:
    • Martin Luther King Jr.’s actions leading to his arrest in Birmingham Alabama
  12. The Warren Commission investigated:
    • President Kennedy’s assassination
  13. The Johnson administration initiated all the following programs as part of its War on Poverty except:
    • Social Security
  14. The Immigration Act of 1965 altered twentieth- century American immigration policy by:
    • ending the national-origins quota system
  15. The Johnson Administration’s approach to the Vietnam Conflict is best summarized as a(n):
    • escalation
  16. The Warren Court is best known for a series of decisions that:
    • expanded individuals’ constitutional rights
  17. The civil rights movement was a positive inspiration for all the following except:
    • the Republican resurgence in the 1960s
  18. The Beat Generation influenced the development of the:
    • counterculture
  19. The person most closely associated with the Black Power movement was:
    • Stokely Carmichael
  20. Compared with earlier movements for women’s rights “second wave” feminism:
    • challenged inequalities in relationships the workplace and the home

Free Response Questions

  1. Explain how the liberalism of the 1960s lost momentum by the end of the decade.
  2. Explain how the civil rights movement’s tactics and strategies changed in the 1960s.
  3. Discuss the impact of the civil rights movement on other activist movements in the mid to late 1960s.
  4. Explain the significance of the Tet Offensive to American support for the Vietnam War and its impact on the 1964 presidential election.

AP Practice Questions

Electoral College results in presidential elections 1956-1968.
Refer to the maps provided.
  1. A historian might use these maps to support the hypothesis that
    • there was an electoral backlash to the federal government’s policies in the mid-1960s
  2. The maps best reflect which continuity in American history?
    • Major national and international events can profoundly affect electoral majorities.
  3. What was the major cause of change between 1964 and 1968?
    • Reaction to military action in Vietnam and Johnson’s Great Society
Refer to the excerpt provided.

“The Great Society rests on abundance and liberty for all. It demands an end to poverty and racial injustice to which we are totally committed in our time. But that is just the beginning. The Great Society is a place where every child can find knowledge to enrich his mind and to enlarge his talents. It is a place where leisure is a welcome chance to build and reflect not a feared cause of boredom and restlessness. It is a place where the city of man serves not only the needs of the body and the demands of commerce but the desire for beauty and the hunger for community. It is a place where man can renew contact with nature. It is a place which honors creation for its own sake and for what it adds to the understanding of the race. It is a place where men are more concerned with the quality of their goals than the quantity of their goods. But most of all the Great Society is not a safe harbor a resting place a final objective a finished work. It is a challenge constantly renewed”

President Lyndon Johnson “Great Society Speech” Commencement Speech at the University of Michigan May 22 1964

  1. Which group would most likely support the point of view expressed in the excerpt?
    • Liberal supporters of the Warren Court decisions
  2. The sentiments expressed in the excerpt were most directly shaped by belief in:
    • the limited welfare state
  3. The goals expressed in the excerpt were most directly affected by:
    • government spending on the Vietnam War