New Testament
New Testament Study Guide
1. Describe and evaluate: The Historical-Critical Method
The historical-critical method is an approach to understanding ancient texts, especially those of The Bible, by examining the historical and literary contexts in which they were written. The method analyzes the different sources, genres, and editorial influences in the canonical composition of The Bible. It considers the components individually and traces their historical development over time.
Weaknesses:
It primarily focuses on The Bible’s historical and literary dimensions, often neglecting its evolving theological and spiritual meanings.
It does not always address how these texts were understood or interpreted within the faith communities.
The method’s emphasis on diachronic analysis—examining texts through their historical development—has been critiqued for overshadowing synchronic analysis, which examines the text in its final form.
2. Describe and evaluate: New Methods of Literary Analysis
The rhetorical analysis approach examines how The Bible’s language is used to persuade, focusing on the speaker, the message, and the audience. It draws form teh the classical Greco-Roman rheotric, Semitic composition techniques, and modern “new rhetoric.”
Strengths: It helps us understand how The Bible powerfully speaks to its audience, aiming to shape beliefs, actions, and how people see the world. This approach recognizes that The Bible isn’t just a list of facts, but an active and engaging source.
Weaknesses: This approach tends to focus mostly on style, which can sometimes overshadow The Bible’s religious and historical meaning. It can also make the texts more complicated by suggesting that they have more complex structures than they actually do.
The narrative analysis approach looks at The Bible as a collection of stories that draw readers into a world with a plot, characters, and themes. It focuses on studying The Bible as a story, including the roles of the author, the implied author, the real reader, and the implied reader.
Strengths: It makes the text easier to relate to emotionally and spiritually, helping readers connect with it on a personal level.
Weaknesses: It can make understanding the text harder, especially for people who aren't familiar with narrative theory. Plus, it might focus too much on the literary aspects of the Bible and miss its deeper religious and theological meanings.
The semiotic analysis approach looks at language as a system of signs and how they relate to each other. It focuses on things like the story structure, figurative language, and the underlying rules that help create the text’s meaning.
Strengths: Semiotic analysis is useful for understanding how the Bible makes sense as a whole and how its message is communicated. It helps show how The Bible uses language and symbols together to create meaning, making it easier to understand the text as a connected and unified story.
Weaknesses: Focusing only on the text without considering its historical and cultural background can be an issue. The Bible isn’t just a collection of words—it’s a living document that connects to history, culture, and theology. If we apply semiotic analysis too strictly, we might end up only seeing patterns of signs and miss The Bible’s deeper spiritual and historical importance.
3. Describe and evaluate: Approaches based on Tradition
The Canonical Approach emphasizes the unity of Scripture within the faith community.
It values the text’s final form and appreciates how the community has shaped and adapted the Scriptures.
This method does not replace historical-critical exegesis but complements it by highlighting the theological, communal aspect of Scripture.
Pros: The canonical approach is valuable for integrating the Bible into the life of faith. By interpreting texts in the context of the entire canon, it fosters a more cohesive understanding of Scripture as a whole. It avoids the mistake of viewing individual texts in isolation, which could obscure the larger theological narrative.
Weaknesses: One challenge is figuring out exactly when a text becomes part of the official scripture, and there’s also tension between Jewish and Christian interpretations. The church’s role in preserving tradition is important for understanding the text today.
The Jewish Tradition Approach helps situate the Bible in its original Jewish context and interpretive traditions.
The Jewish way of interpreting the Bible includes methods like allegory, parables, and psalms, which are important to both Jewish and Christian traditions. This approach has influenced how the early church read Scripture. Jewish commentaries and traditions are valuable resources for understanding the Bible, helping to explain tough passages and giving a deeper look at its historical and religious context.
Pros: This approach shows the common roots of Judaism and Christianity and emphasizes the importance of understanding Jewish interpretive traditions when reading Scripture.
Weaknesses: It highlights the key difference between the two religions—Judaism focuses on being a faith tied to a people and law, while Christianity centers on personal faith in Jesus Christ. While understanding the Jewish context is important, Christian interpretation must always stay focused on Jesus Christ being the fullfiment of Scripture.
The History of the Influence of the Text approach focuses on how the text has been read and interpreted, giving insight into its evolving meaning.
This approach highlights that a text gains life through the readers who engage with it and how biblical texts have been received, interpreted, and applied throughout history, focusing on the influence of these interpretations.
Pros: This approach helps reveal all the meanings a text can have over time. It shows how a text can speak to different generations and situations, which is important for keeping Scripture relevant today
Weaknesses: However, this approach needs careful judgment to prevent misunderstandings or misinterpretations, like those that have led to harmful ideas (such as anti-Semitism). It's also important not to treat any historical interpretation as the final answer, but to stay open to other perspectives.
4. Describe and evaluate: Approaches that Use the Human Sciences
The sociological approach to biblical exegesis highlights the reciprocal relationship between religious texts and the societies in which they were formed.
Strengths: It highlights the importance of understanding the social conditions and structures that influenced biblical traditions, from Israel becoming a nation to the early Christian communities. This approach tries to place biblical texts in their social, economic, and political contexts, providing a more practical and fact-based interpretation of these works.
Limitations: Using modern sociological models to study ancient societies can be difficult because there isn’t enough historical evidence, and it’s hard to apply today’s social theories to cultures from the past. Also, this approach focuses mainly on economic and social factors, often overlooking the personal and religious aspects of the biblical story.
Cultural anthropology shares similarities with the sociological approach but distinguishes itself by examining a broader array of human experiences, including religion, language, customs, and rituals.
Strengths: This approach is helpful for understanding the social and cultural backgrounds of biblical texts, like the roles of family, gender, and farming rituals in ancient Israelite society. It helps to distinguish between common human experiences and practices specific to that culture, offering valuable insights into the lasting message of the Bible.
Limitations: Like sociology, cultural anthropology does not inherently address the theological content of revelation, meaning its findings should be integrated with other interpretive approaches.
The psychological and psychoanalytical approaches explore the human psyche, symbolism, and unconscious dynamics in biblical texts.
Caution must be exercised when applying psychological theories to sacred texts, as these methods can overinterpret or distort the Bible’s spiritual and theological dimensions.
5. Identify:
Herod the Great: Herod the Great (37 BC - 4 AD) was a “Jewish” king under Roman rule, the son of Antipater, and played a major role in ending the Hasmonean dynasty. After the Roman general Pompey got involved in the civil wars in Palestine, Antipater helped Herod become king. Herod was wealthy and powerful, known for his huge building projects, like rebuilding the Second Temple in Jerusalem and for the tragic massacre of the Holy Innocents. Even though he was Jewish, many saw him as more of a “token Jew.” He married a Hasmonean princess, but after she supported her brother as high priest, he had her and several of his sons killed, including his firstborn. Herod's reign brought two-thirds of Palestine under his control, but he eventually died from gangrene. After his death, his kingdom was split between his three sons—Archelaus, Philip, and Herod Antipas—each ruling different areas.
The Pharisees were Jews who believed in strict interpretation, both written and oral, of the mosaic law. They expected a coming Messiah to deliver Israel. They seem to be antithesis to the messiness in Judaism. They do believe in the Resurrection of the Body.
The Sadducees were Jews that believed in the establishment and cooperation with Rome. They were wealthy elites who did not believe in the Resurrection of the Dead or in angels. They held that oral tradition was not part of the mosaic law.
Essenes: The Essenes were a smaller Jewish group that lived a communal, monastic lifestyle near the Dead Sea at Qumran from the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD. They are best known because of the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947, which include religious texts, nearly the entire Hebrew Bible, non-canonical writings, and the Essenes’ own texts. The Essenes rejected the legitimacy of the priesthood in Jerusalem. Because of this, they refused to take part in Temple worship or attend religious festivals in Jerusalem. The Essenes had apocalyptic beliefs, expecting God to send a great prophet and possibly two Messiahs—one priestly and one kingly. They lived by strict rules and rituals, which may have included celibacy, and had tough membership requirements.
6. For each Gospel (Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John), identify the author, where the Gospel may have been written, and his audience)
Mark:
Who? Mark, possibly John Mark, was associated with Paul (Acts 12:12 mentions the house where Peter knocked). John Mark was “Peter’s scribe,” in the sense that John Mark heard Peter preach and wrote down the things Peter preached about. This would explain the conversational tone to the writing (use of “and” and speeches). It was through recording Peter’s sermons that John Mark came to compile the Gospel of Mark.
Where was it written? The Gospel’s location is uncertain, but Rome is the most likely location since the Gospel emphasizes urban centers and presents a narrative that is notably Roman in tone. It emphasizes Jesus’ suffering and Passion under Roman persecution. Alexandria or Syria are also possibilities for authorship location.
His audience: Mark’s Gospel is addressed to a persecuted community and was likely written between 60 and 75 AD. It emphasizes urban centers and presents a narrative that is notably Roman in tone.
Matthew:
Who? The Gospel of Matthew may have had two key contributors: the apostle Matthew, who arranged Jesus’ teachings in Hebrew, and another figure—likely an interpreter or translator—who translated the gospel into its final Greek form.
The evangelist was likely a Greek speaker who knew Hebrew or Aramaic.
The Two-Source Theory suggests that Matthew drew from Mark and a separate source, Q, explaining the many shared stories with Mark, though Matthew’s narrative is often more polished.
Where was it written? The Gospel was likely written between 80 and 90 AD, with possibilities including Antioch or Syria–a region where Jewish and Gentile communities were experiencing tensions. Ignatius of Antioch references this gospel in 117 AD, further supporting its early use in Christian communities.
His audience: It was intended for a Jewish Christian audience gradually becoming more influenced by Gentile culture. It is considered the “Jewish Gospel” and the “Gospel of the Church.”
Luke:
Who wrote the Gospel of Luke? Luke was written by a doctor and companion of Paul who was fluent in Hebrew and Greek cultures. It was likely written after the Gospel of Mark, around 80-90 AD, following the fall of Jerusalem in 70 AD. Some suggest it may have been written earlier, as the Acts of the Apostles, also attributed to Luke, do not mention Paul's death.
Where was it written? Scholars think the gospel was written in Antioch, a major Hellenistic city, or in Asia Minor, possibly in Ephesus or Smyrna.
His audience: Luke targets a Gentile audience. It features a developed theology and reflects the sentiments of people mourning the fall of Jerusalem. Understanding its narrative helps to grasp its theological message. The Gospel emphasizes Jesus’s role as prophet. The gospel of Luke contains the most parables of all the gospels, further highlighting Jesus’s mission as prophet.
John:
Who wrote the Gospel of John? The Gospel of John may have been written or finalized within the Johannine community, possibly by the Beloved Disciple, who could have been someone other than John the Apostle. While John the Apostle may have been the author, the gospel itself does not mention the apostles.
Where was it written? Possible locations for its composition include Alexandria in Egypt, due to its Gnostic influences; Syria, because of references by Ignatius of Antioch; or Ephesus, where tradition holds John the Apostle oversaw the Christian community.
His audience: John’s theology is much later and more developed, often described as a “kaleidoscope” of ideas. The author demonstrates a deep familiarity with the Septuagint.
7. Compare the portrayal of Jesus across the Synoptic Gospels, using specific references to the texts.
Mark focuses on Jesus as the Suffering Servant, emphasizing his humanity, suffering, and the Messianic Secret. The central thesis of His Gospel is: Who is Jesus? The answer: the Son of God.
Jesus is depicted as the Son of God (1:1, 9:7, 15:39). He is presented as the suffering Messiah, with frequent Passion predictions, the Messianic secret, and the centurion’s recognition of his divinity at the cross. He demonstrates authority over his followers in the synagogue and unclean spirits.
If we stick with the theory that John Mark heard Peter preach, it explains why Mark’s Gospel heavily emphasizes this theme. In the early days of the Church, the preaching of the Apostles focused heavily on emphasizing Jesus’ identity as the Son of God. John Mark would have heard these chronological sermons about Jesus being the Son of God, thus explaining why that seems to be his central thesis.
Jesus is depicted as the Suffering Servant. Jesus faces opposition and misunderstanding, particularly from his family, the people of Nazareth, religious and political leaders, and even his disciples.
Mark’s Passion and Resurrection accounts include unusual details, such as a naked man fleeing, a young man in the tomb, and the Gospel's debated shorter or longer ending.
Matthew: Presents Jesus as the Jewish Messiah, fulfilling Old Testament prophecies, and as a teacher of a new law, the Kingdom of Heaven. Matthew also has an eschatological focus, presenting Jesus as ushering in a new era.
Jesus is portrayed as the fulfillment of the prophets and the law, with a genealogy tracing his lineage to Abraham and numerous references to Isaiah and other prophets (e.g., 1:23). The Sermon on the Mount, following Jesus’ baptism and temptation, presents him as the new Moses and the new Exodus. The Great Commission further emphasizes his role as the fulfillment of the old Law.
Jesus is depicted as both the Son of God and Son of Man, with the title Emmanuel (1:23, 28:20). Matthew emphasizes Jesus’ role in calling his disciples to form the Church, notably through Peter’s confession of faith and the keys to the kingdom.
The Passion account in Matthew includes unique details such as Judas’ hanging, the cry “His blood be upon us,” the earthquake and tearing of the temple veil, and the guard at the tomb.
Luke: Highlights Jesus’ role as the universal Savior, focusing on compassion, mercy, and inclusivity, emphasizing sinners and Gentiles.
God is portrayed as actively involved in human history, with a genealogy tracing Jesus back to Adam and historical details in chapters 2 and 3. His divine plan is fulfilled through Jesus.
Jesus is depicted as a prophet: constantly in prayer (e.g., at his baptism, when choosing disciples, and during the Passion), demanding total commitment, performing miracles, and ultimately meeting the death of a prophet, with all eyes upon him.
Luke 4:16-30 serves as a microcosm of the Gospel, reflecting Jesus’ initial acceptance and subsequent rejection. Similarly, the Road to Emmaus episode highlights the transformation of two disciples as they understand Jesus’ mission.
Key themes in Luke include the Father, the Holy Spirit, the Temple (both at the beginning and end), and the prominent presence of women.
Luke leads into Acts–Luke positioned as a “crossroads” in the New Testament.
In the Passion narrative, Jesus is portrayed as more all-knowing and stoic. In the Garden of Gethsemane, he kneels and raises his hands in prayer, while his death is depicted as that of an "innocent" prophet.
Luke emphasizes that it is necessary for God’s plan to be fulfilled, highlighting the significance of the “Today” in God’s divine purpose.
8. Compare the portrayal of the Church in Matthew and Luke, using specific references to the texts.
Matthew: There is mention of the Church twice (Peter’s confession and eccelesiological discourses in Mt 18. The Church is portrayed as a structured community with significant authority, mainly through the figure of Peter. It is commissioned to spread the Gospel to all nations, is given the power to bind and loose in matters of doctrine and discipline, and called to pratice forgiveness and reconcilation. Matthew emphasizes the Church's hierarchical and doctrinal authority, especially regarding its leadership and its role in preserving Jesus' teachings.
Luke: He never explicitly says the “Church” in the Gospel. The Church is portrayed as a missionary community focused on outreach to the marginalized and the poor. Luke highlights the Church's humble, compassionate nature, focusing on its role as a witness to the kingdom of God (kerygma) even to the point of martyrdom and as a community that forgives sins and extends mercy. It is less concerned with institutional authority and more with spiritual community (koinonia) and mission (kerygma). Acts 2:42–community is united by the Apostles’ teaching and fellowship, breaking of the bread (liturgy), and prayer. THE CHURCH IS THE WAY.
9. Give the narrative trajectory of both the Gospel of Luke and Acts. How does Luke tie the two books together?
Luke sets the stage by showing how God's plan, fulfilled in Jesus, is now carried forward through the life of the Church in Acts. This connection is explicitly stated in the opening verses of both books: Luke 1:1-4 introduces the Gospel, while Acts 1:1-5 transitions to the ongoing work of the Church.
The Church is depicted as the continuation of the story that began in the Old Testament, fulfilled in Jesus, and now unfolding in the lives of the apostles.
Salvation history is rooted in human history, and key themes—such as the Holy Spirit, joy, and the Temple—tie the two books together.
The disciples’ actions and words mirror those of Jesus. For instance, Stephen’s martyrdom parallels Jesus' crucifixion, while Peter performs miracles similar to those of Jesus.
Throughout Acts, the apostles face persecution but endure it joyfully, reflecting Jesus’ perseverance and teachings.
10. What are some differences between the first part and last part of Acts? Take into account things such as location, characters, and content of speeches.
There are distinct differences in location, characters, and speech content between Acts 1-12 and Acts 13-28.
Acts 1-12 focuses primarily on Jerusalem, Judea, and Samaria, where the Gospel begins spreading at Pentecost (Acts 2).
The central figures are Peter and the other apostles, with Stephen also playing a significant role (Acts 6-7).
The apostles continue Jesus’ work through miracles, preaching, facing persecution, and martyrdom.
The speeches in this section are kerygmatic, focusing on how Jesus fulfills Jewish salvation history, emphasizing the Cross and Resurrection and a developing Christology.
The narrative style is rougher and more immediate.
In Acts 13-28, the Gospel spreads “to the ends of the earth,” with a new emphasis on the Gentiles.
This section follows Paul’s journeys and imprisonment.
The speeches in this part are more apologetic and didactic, such as in Acts 14 and 17 (Athens), where Paul defends his faith during trials.
The narrative style becomes more polished and classical, reflecting the Greek settings of Paul's travels.
11. Who is the Beloved Disciple in John? Your answer should take into account the authorship and audience of the Gospel.
The Beloved Disciple is a figure who enjoys a close, intimate relationship with Jesus, particularly at key moments such as the Last Supper.
While some scholars have suggested that the Beloved Disciple points to John, the son of Zebedee, it seems more likely that the Beloved Disciple and John, the son of Zebedee are different people.
The Beloved Disciple may have been another disicpole who was not an apostle, but comes from the Johannine community, who was has familiarity with John, the son of Zebedee’s connections.