U.S. History Vocabulary Review

Immigration and Migration Vocabulary

  • Migration: Movement of people from one place to another; significant in shaping U.S. population growth, urbanization, and labor supply.
  • Immigration: Movement of people into the U.S.; contributed to workforce, urban growth, and cultural transformation.
  • Emigration: The act of leaving one’s home country, which motivated millions to leave Europe and Asia for America.
  • Push and Pull Factors for Immigration:
    • Push Factors: Conditions that force individuals to leave their home country, such as war, poverty, and famine.
    • Pull Factors: Attractions that draw individuals to a new country, including jobs, freedom, land, and opportunities.

Early Industrial Revolution and Its Roots

  • Industrial Revolution: A major shift from hand production methods to machine-based manufacturing driven by innovation in technology, availability of resources, transportation improvements, labor supply, and capital investment.
  • Railroads and the Industrial Revolution: Played a crucial role by linking natural resources to factories and markets, significantly accelerating industrial development and national expansion.
  • Public Education: Expanded throughout the 1800s, aiming to create literate workers and citizens, ultimately aiding immigrants and children in adapting to an industrialized society.

Civil War and Reconstruction Era

  • Dakota Conflict of 1862: Stemmed from abrogated treaties, hunger, and delayed payments to Native Americans; exemplified the brutal treatment faced by Indigenous peoples by the U.S.
  • Political Machines:
    • Causes of Growth: Arising in rapidly expanding cities by exchanging services, jobs, and favors for votes.
    • Tactics: Utilized corruption to gain political control, often supported by immigrants and lower-income citizens.
    • Boss Tweed: A notable representation of political corruption through his leadership in Tammany Hall, highlighting the exploitation of public resources in urban politics.

Rise of Big Business and the Gilded Age

  • Bessemer Process: An innovative method for producing steel more efficiently and at a lower cost; facilitated the construction of major infrastructure like railroads, bridges, and skyscrapers.
  • Andrew Carnegie: A steel magnate whose industrial success epitomized the rise of massive corporations while also drawing attention to philanthropy and the exploitation of labor.
  • Gilded Age: Referring to the late 1800s, characterized by apparent prosperity and rapid growth, juxtaposed against corruption, stark inequality, and widespread poverty beneath the surface.
  • Laissez-Faire: A prevailing belief advocating minimal government intervention in the economy, which allowed businesses to expand with limited regulatory oversight.
  • Monopoly: A market structure where a single firm predominates, effectively eliminating competition and concentrating power among business owners.
  • Trusts: Business arrangements consolidating multiple companies under a single control, facilitating the creation of monopolies and stifling competition.
  • Social Darwinism: A theory applying the concept of "survival of the fittest" to societal hierarchies, justifying economic disparities and advocating against governmental assistance for the underprivileged.
  • Big Business vs Labor: An ongoing conflict in which owners prioritized profits and control, while workers advocated for fair wages, job safety, and reduced working hours.

Farm and Railroad Reform Era

  • Farmer Problems: Challenges such as low crop prices, mounting debts, excessive shipping charges, and inequitable railroad pricing policies that prompted farmers to seek political action.
  • Interstate Commerce Act (1887): The first significant federal legislation aimed at regulating the conduct of large companies, particularly railroads, in response to widespread abuses.
  • Dawes Act (1887): Legislation aimed at breaking up Native American tribal lands into individual parcels to promote assimilation into mainstream American culture; led to significant land loss for Native Americans.
  • Native American Boarding Schools: Institutions set up to enforce the abandonment of Indigenous languages and cultures, part of the broader assimilation strategy employed by the U.S. government.

Labor, Anti-Monopoly, and Immigration Restrictions

  • Sherman Antitrust Act (1890): The first federal act aimed specifically at countering monopolistic practices and trusts, arising from growing apprehension over corporate power.
  • Battle at Wounded Knee (1890): A massacre of approximately 300 unarmed Lakota Sioux, marking a brutal conclusion to significant Native American resistance in the West.
  • Homestead Strike of 1892: A violent confrontation between steelworkers and the Carnegie Steel Company resulting in the defeat of the union, illustrating the dominance of big business over labor.
  • Chinese Exclusion Act (1882): The initial major law in the U.S. excluding immigration based on nationality, reflecting deeply rooted anti-Asian sentiment and nativism.
  • Nativism: An ideology characterized by strong anti-immigrant sentiments favoring individuals born in the United States, which fueled stricter immigration policies and broadened societal prejudice.
  • New vs Old Immigrants: The distinction whereby "old" immigrants originated from Northern and Western Europe, while "new" immigrants came from Southern and Eastern Europe, often facing greater discrimination.

The Populist Era

  • Populism: A grassroots movement among farmers and the working class opposing the economic dominance of railroads, banks, and large corporations; advocated for reform and economic support for ordinary citizens.
  • Free Silver: A proposed monetary policy to increase the money supply through the introduction of silver currency, endorsed by farmers seeking to alleviate debt burdens by inducing inflation.

Settlement and Urban Reform

  • Settlement Houses: Community centers designed to support immigrants and the impoverished urban populace by offering services such as education, childcare, and recreational activities.

Civil Rights Debates: Booker T. Washington vs W.E.B. Du Bois

  • Booker T. Washington: Advocated for vocational training and gradual progress towards racial equality for Black Americans; accepted segregation as a temporary measure.
  • W.E.B. Du Bois: Called for immediate civil rights and higher education opportunities for African Americans; critiqued Washington's incremental approach as insufficient.

The Advent of American Imperialism

  • U.S. Imperialism: Describes the United States' expansionist policies overseas through military conflict, territorial annexations, diplomatic negotiations, and economic pressures, targeting new markets, resources, and international power.
  • Hawaii Annexation (1898): The incorporation of Hawaii into the United States predominantly to serve sugar interests and enhance strategic military positioning in the Pacific.
  • Spanish-American War (1898): A brief military conflict that established the U.S. as a global power, granting control over Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.
  • Philippine-American War (1899-1902): A conflict arising as Filipinos opposed U.S. sovereignty following Spain's defeat, showcasing America’s imperial endeavors.
  • Open Door Notes (1899): A policy articulated by U.S. Secretary of State John Hay that sought to maintain equal trading rights in China, averting monopoly by any one nation.

The Progressive Era and Roosevelt Administration

  • Progressive Movement: A reform-oriented movement designed to combat corruption, regulate monopolies, safeguard consumers, improve labor conditions, and bolster democracy itself.
  • Muckrakers: Investigative journalists who uncovered societal issues such as corruption and unsafe living conditions, subsequently galvanizing public support for reforms.
  • Teddy Roosevelt: The Progressive-era president known for increasing federal power, corporate regulation, and advocating for conservation efforts.
  • Square Deal: Roosevelt’s comprehensive domestic policy focusing on fairness through three pivotal areas: corporate regulation, consumer protection, and conservation of natural resources.
  • Roosevelt Corollary (1904): An extension of the Monroe Doctrine asserting that the U.S. would engage in military action to protect its economic interests in Latin America.
  • Panama Canal (1904-1914): A monumental infrastructure project linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, enhancing U.S. trade and naval strength.
  • Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle (1906): A seminal work that brought to light the unsanitary practices of the meatpacking industry, catalyzing food safety reforms.
  • Gentleman’s Agreement (1907-1908): An informal accord with Japan limiting immigration without imposing a formal exclusion; highlighted prevailing anti-Asian sentiments.
  • Angel Island (1910): An immigration station in California where numerous Asian immigrants were subject to rigorous questioning and detention.
  • Ellis Island (1892-1954): The principal entry point for millions of European immigrants arriving on the East Coast.

Democracy Reforms

  • Initiative, Referendum, and Recall: Tools introduced during the Progressive Era to empower voters with greater direct influence over legislation and electoral representatives.

Taft and Wilson Foreign Policy

  • Dollar Diplomacy: Taft’s policy emphasizing the use of American financial investments to exert influence and support abroad.
  • Missionary Diplomacy: Wilson’s foreign policy aimed at promoting democratic governance and ethical diplomacy, despite controversies involving interventions.

Industrial Disaster and Reform

  • Triangle Shirtwaist Fire (1911): A catastrophic fire that underscored the hazardous working conditions, prompting the establishment of more rigorous labor and safety regulations.

Westward Expansion and Native Americans

  • Culture of Plains Native Americans: Highly dependent on the buffalo for sustenance and materials, along with the horse for mobility; maintained a nomadic lifestyle with a belief in collective land ownership.
  • Dawes Act (1887): Legislation intended to assimilate Native Americans by allocating individual land parcels; resulted in considerable land loss to white settlers.
  • Battle of Little Bighorn (1876): General Custer's infamous defeat against the Sioux and Cheyenne tribes, led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, marking a notable victory for Native Americans but inciting severe military reprisals from the U.S.
  • Battle of Wounded Knee (1890): The tragic end of the Indian Wars, where the U.S. Army massacred around 300 unarmed Sioux, symbolizing the suppression of Native resistance.
  • Cattle and Beef Demand: Post-Civil War urban expansion drove an increased need for beef, leading cowboys to drive cattle from Texas to rail depots for transportation to Eastern markets.

Industrialization and Inventions

  • Oil and Steel Innovations:
    • Steel: The development of the Bessemer Process dramatically lowered production costs, enabling the rise of massive infrastructural projects.
    • Oil: Edwin Drake's invention of the steam-powered oil drill transformed oil extraction into a viable industry, initially refining oil into kerosene.
  • Impacts of Electricity: Thomas Edison’s advancements in electrical lighting facilitated factories' operational flexibility, allowing them to function independently of water power.
  • Transformative Inventions: Developments such as the typewriter (by Christopher Sholes) and telephone (by Alexander Graham Bell) dramatically reshaped communication and created new employment opportunities, particularly for women.

The Railroad Era

  • Transcontinental Railroad: Completed in 1869 at Promontory, Utah; it unified the East and West Coasts and was primarily constructed by Chinese and Irish laborers under perilous conditions.
  • Railroad Time: Introduction of four standardized time zones (Eastern, Central, Mountain, Pacific) to facilitate train scheduling over long distances.
  • Railroad Abuses: Monopolistic practices of railroads adversely affected farmers through price manipulation and exorbitant shipping charges.
  • Interstate Commerce Act (1887): Legislation enacted to regulate railroad operations, marking the first instance of federal involvement in overseeing private enterprise.

Big Business and Labor Relations

  • Andrew Carnegie's Steel Dominance: Employed both vertical integration (gaining control over suppliers) and horizontal integration (absorbing competitors) to solidify his company’s industry leadership.
  • John D. Rockefeller and Standard Oil: Established trusts to create a monopoly, initially lowering prices to eliminate competition, then raising them post-annihilation of rivals.
  • Social Darwinism in Business: The concept often misapplied to support economic inequalities and resist regulatory frameworks meant to assist the disenfranchised.
  • Strikes and Labor Conflicts: Major labor uprisings, including the Great Strike of 1877, Haymarket Affair, Homestead Strike, Pullman Strike; frequently ended in violence and military intervention against strikers.
  • Sherman Antitrust Act (1890): Legislation prohibiting the formation of monopolistic trusts hindering free trade; initially enforced weakly.
  • American Federation of Labor (AFL): A labor union led by Samuel Gompers that emphasized organizing skilled workers and advocating for basic labor rights.
  • Industrial Workers of the World (IWW): Radical labor organization, known as the "Wobblies," which embraced a broader, inclusive worker approach, particularly involving unskilled laborers.