Chapter 9

Stages of Development

Overview of Developmental Stages

  • Three Main Stages (skipping prenatal):

    • Childhood: From infancy to 12 years (puberty)

    • Adolescence: From 12 to 18 years

    • Adulthood: From 18 years to death

  • Within Each Stage:

    • Physical Development

    • Cognitive Development

    • Emotional Development (Psychosocial)

Childhood

Physical Development

  • Newborn Reflexes (survival instincts):

    • Rooting Reflex: Automatic response to the stimulation of the cheek area

    • Grasping Reflex: Grasp of anything that touches the palms

    • Moro Reflex: Reaction to the sensation of falling

  • Senses:

    • Strong auditory and olfactory senses present at birth; vision develops rapidly

    • Visual Cliff Experiment: Used to test depth perception in infants

  • Neural Development:

    • Born with 100-200 billion neurons - largely the total number one will have throughout life

    • Blooming: A rapid growth of neural connections in the first few years

    • Pruning: Reduction of excess neural connections for efficiency from childhood into adolescence

    • Rapid physical growth occurs for both body and brain size

Motor Skills in Childhood

  • Brain Growth: Very rapid up to age six

  • Motor Skills Development:

    • Transition from reflexive actions to advanced motor functions

    • Fine Motor Skills: Involvement of smaller muscle groups (e.g., muscles in fingers, toes, eyes)

    • Example: Writing, using a spoon, grasping toys

    • Gross Motor Skills: Involvement of larger muscle groups controlling arms and legs for bigger movements

    • Example: Running, jumping, and balancing

Developmental Milestones for Ages 2-5 Years

  • At Age 2:

    • Physical: Kicks a ball; walks up and down stairs

    • Personal/Social: Plays alongside other children; imitates adults

    • Language: Points to named objects; forms 2-4 word sentences

    • Cognitive: Sorts shapes and colors; follows 2-step instructions

  • At Age 3:

    • Physical: Climbs and runs; pedals a tricycle

    • Personal/Social: Takes turns; expresses various emotions; dresses independently

    • Language: Names familiar items; uses pronouns

    • Cognitive: Engages in make-believe play; manipulates toys with parts (like levers and handles)

  • At Age 4:

    • Physical: Catches balls; uses scissors

    • Personal/Social: Prefers social play to solitary play; identifies likes and interests

    • Language: Knows songs and rhymes by memory

    • Cognitive: Speaks clearly and uses complete sentences

  • At Age 5:

    • Physical: Hops; swings; uses a fork and spoon

    • Personal/Social: Distinguishes between reality and pretend; desires to please friends

    • Language: Knows colors and numbers; begins to write letters

    • Cognitive: Counts to 10 or beyond; prints some letters; copies basic shapes

Cognitive Development in Childhood

  • Language Acquisition:

    • Involves communication through gestures prior to verbal language

    • Innate capacity for language learning (nature) is reinforced through social interactions (nurture)

  • Object Permanence: Development usually occurs around 8 months

  • Symbolic/Pretense Play: Emerges in preschool years

  • Theory of Mind (by preschool years): Understanding that others have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that differ from one’s own

  • Problem Solving and Logical Thought: Develop concurrently; Piaget's stages noted to occur in a more fluid manner rather than strict categories

Emotional Development in Childhood

  • Attachment: Long-lasting emotional connections with others

    • Harlow's Monkeys (1950s): Study where newborn monkeys were separated from their mothers and provided with two surrogate mothers - one made of wire (dispensed milk) and one made of cloth (did not dispense milk)

    • Findings indicated monkeys preferred the cloth mother for comfort and security, indicating the importance of these elements in forming bonds

  • John Bowlby and Attachment Bonds:

    • Secure Base Concept: The presence of a caregiver provides a sense of safety allowing a child to explore

    • Two aspects necessary for healthy attachment:

    1. The caregiver must be responsive to the child's needs

    2. Engagement in mutually enjoyable interactions between caregiver and child

  • Ainsworth's Classification of Attachment (Strange Situation, 1970):

    • Secure Attachment: Prefers the parent over strangers

    • Avoidant Attachment: Displays unresponsiveness to the parent

    • Resistant/Anxious Attachment: Engaging in clingy behavior before showing rejection of the parent’s attempts at interaction

    • Disorganized Attachment: Exhibits a mixture of avoidant and anxious traits and does not fit neatly into the previous categories (with later developments noted in the 1990s)

  • Self-Concept: Formation of a positive self-identity linked to parenting styles:

    • Authoritative: Reasonable demands with consistent limits, warmth, and affection

    • Authoritarian: Strict, emphasizing conformity and obedience

    • Permissive: Excessively lenient with rarely any demands or punishment

    • Uninvolved: Indifferent and neglectful, lacking engagement in the child's life

Adolescence

  • Definition: A socially constructed period framing the transition from puberty to adulthood, historically differing in definitions from pre-industrial societies

  • Developmental Aspects:

    • Involves developing independence from parents while maintaining connections

    • Physical Development:

    • Maturation of sexual characteristics

    • Increased body and brain growth with frontal lobe development continuing into early 20s

  • Cognitive Development:

    • Engages in Formal Operational Thought: Capable of abstract thinking, hypothesis formulation, and debate

    • Cognitive Empathy: Enhanced understanding and concern for others’ perspectives, increasing the Theory of Mind and social problem-solving capacity

  • Psychosocial Development:

    • Focus on identity formation and relationships

    • Mostly positive dynamics; most teens experience only minor conflicts with parents

Emerging Adulthood

  • Timeframe: Refers to the period from age 18 into the mid-20s, emerging as a distinct phase in modern history

  • Factors Influencing Transition to Adulthood:

    • Longevity increases

    • Higher education becomes a necessity

    • Pursuit of financial security and stable work

    • Extended period for self-exploration

Adulthood

  • Commencement: Begins around age 20

Stages of Adulthood

  • Early Adulthood: From 20s to 40s

  • Middle Adulthood: From 40s to 60s

  • Late Adulthood: From age 60 and onward

Physical Development in Adulthood

  • Early Adulthood: Peak physical performance

  • Middle Adulthood: Gradual physical decline; potential for weight gain and reduced fertility

  • Late Adulthood: Noticeable physical decline; sensory deficits apparent; brain functioning begins to slow

Cognitive Development in Adulthood

  • Cognitive Abilities: Generally remain stable from 20s to 60s

  • Late Adulthood: More cognitive decline observed

  • Cognitive Functioning:

    • Crystallized Intelligence: Increases or remains stable throughout adulthood

    • Fluid Intelligence: Likely to decrease in late adulthood

    • Importance of maintaining mental activity to mitigate cognitive decline

Psychosocial Development in Adulthood

  • Workplace Dynamics: Overall pay and job satisfaction tend to increase with age; self-identity often tied to career

  • Importance of Connections: Healthy connections with children, partners, and communities contribute greatly to life satisfaction

Death and Dying

  • Inevitability of Death: Considered a natural and unavoidable aspect of life

  • Hospice Services Goals: Focus on providing a humane and comfortable environment for terminally ill patients

    • Often leads to positive outcomes for both patient and family; studies indicate hospice patients may often live longer than those not in hospice care

  • Stages of Grief:

    • Denial

    • Anger

    • Bargaining

    • Depression

    • Acceptance

    • Noted that strong social support, positive regard, and spiritual beliefs mitigate negative emotional experiences accompanying grief

Notecard Activity

  • Consideration: Reflect on personal psychosocial development in adulthood. Assess whether one identifies more with work/school or social connections and discuss the reasons for this perspective.

Next Lecture Preview

  • Upcoming Topic: Chapter 10 focused on Emotion and Motivation

  • Key Reflection Questions:

    • What makes you feel happy/sad/content/angry/etc.?

    • What drives or inspires you to take action?