Introduction to Pro-Social Behavior and the Bystander Effect

Pro-social behavior: Defined as any act that helps others, regardless of the helper's motives. This differs from aggression, which depends on intent.
Altruism: A subset of pro-social behavior that is genuinely selfless, where the helper's main concern is the other person's needs without expecting anything in return.

Social Exchange Theory: Proposes that individuals help when the benefits (pros) of helping outweigh the costs (cons), such as time, money, or effort.
Norm of Social Responsibility: The view that we are obligated to help those who cannot help themselves, including the sick, elderly, children, or abandoned animals.
Norm of Reciprocity: The expectation that people should return favors and help those who have helped them in the past.

Basic Assumption: Helping behavior is learned through observation, imitation, and maintenance via reinforcement.
Mills and Grusek Study: Conducted with children between 8 and 10 years old who won prizes in a game.
Dispositional Praise: Children told they were "a generous person" or "a helpful person" were more likely to give away prizes a second time than those receiving general praise.
Self-Perception Mechanism: Labeling a disposition leads individuals to see themselves in a certain way, encouraging consistent behavior to avoid dissonance.

Definition: People are less likely to help in an emergency when in the presence of others compared to when they are alone.
Latinae and Darley Research: Participants heard a research assistant (confederate) having a seizure.
- 1-on-1 Condition: 85% of participants helped.
- 5-Person Condition: 31% of participants helped.
Latinae and Rhoden Follow-up: Examined relationships with others present.
- Alone: 70% helped.
- With a stranger: 40% helped (bystander effect).
- With a friend: 60% helped.
- Conclusion: The bystander effect is most pronounced among strangers.

Latinae and Darley proposed that all five steps must be met for help to occur:

Notice the event: The helper must pay attention to the situation.
Interpret as an emergency: The helper must decide if the situation is a true emergency (can be hindered by ambiguity).
Take personal responsibility: The helper must feel it is their duty to act (can be hindered by diffusion of responsibility).
Know the appropriate form of help: The helper must have the knowledge or skills to intervene (related to competence).
Implement the decision: The final decision to act, which may be hindered by evaluation apprehension or fear for safety.

Ambiguity: Uncertainty about whether a situation is a real emergency interferes with step 2 of the model.
Diffusion of Responsibility: The belief that others will take action, reducing personal responsibility in a group (interferes with step 3).
Evaluation Apprehension: Concern about being judged or evaluated by others if the help is unsuccessful or creates danger (interferes with step 5).

Competence: Medical professionals or those with specific knowledge are more likely to provide help in specialized emergencies.
Similarity: People are more likely to help in-group members or those perceived as similar to themselves.
Deservingness and Controllability: Help is more likely if the victim's need is due to circumstances out of their control (e.g., illness) rather than controllable factors (e.g., laziness).