The West

Railroad companies advertised accessible land not only in different parts of the US but also abroad in European countries.
Their goal was to attract settlers to help develop the West.

More land came into cultivation in the thirty years following the Civil War than in the previous 250 years of American history.
Hundreds of thousands of families acquired farms under the Homestead Act (1862).
The Homestead Act allowed male citizens or those declaring intent to become citizens to claim federally owned lands in the West.
Key Terms: Homestead Act, land acquisition.
Exclusions in the Act:
- Married women could not file claims for land as they were regarded as legal dependents of their husbands.
- Rare exceptions were made for widows.

The land in question was not unoccupied, an important detail to consider.
A new agricultural empire producing wheat and corn arose in the Middle Border, including:
- Minnesota
- The Dakotas
- Nebraska
- Kansas
Population growth in these areas:
- Increased from 300,000 in 1860 to 5,000,000 by 1900.

Farmers in the West were a diverse group, including:
- Native foreign easterners
- African Americans escaping the post-Reconstruction South
- Immigrants from Canada, Germany, Scandinavia, and Great Britain.
Despite promotional pamphlets' promises, farming on the Great Plains was challenging, with significant burdens placed on women in the family.
Farm families typically invested in labor-saving machinery for cash crops rather than household needs.

A diary excerpt from a farm woman in Arizona describes her extensive morning chores:
- Get up, turn out chickens, draw water, make fire, cook potatoes, sweep the floor, feed chickens, prepare breakfast, milk, and chase calves half a mile.
The household tasks robbed women of time that could be spent on the farm.

Few bonanza farms (large, productive agricultural operations) employed many agricultural wage workers; small family farms still dominated.
Even small farmers oriented their production towards national and international markets, specializing in single crops for sale away from local markets.
Railroads brought factory-made goods to rural areas, replacing previously home-produced items.
The integration of agriculture into the international economy was noted, wherein small farmers faced severe difficulties leading them to migrate to cities or engage in international labor migration.

The future of farming in the West leaned towards giant agricultural enterprises with investments in irrigation, chemicals, and machinery.
California emerged as the leading state for large-scale agriculture, known for its vast valleys, such as the Salinas Valley, recognized as 'the salad bowl of the nation.'

The cattle kingdom flourished after the Civil War, with key railroad stations in Kansas (Abilene, Dodge City, and Wichita) serving as destinations for cattle drives from Texas.
Cowboys, a diverse group inclusive of whites, Mexicans, and blacks, became symbols of freedom on the open range.
Reality check: Life was not romantic for most cowboys, who were often low-paid wage workers.
Example of collective labor: Texas cowboys went on strike in 1883 for higher wages, showcasing a broader trend of workers demanding better conditions.

Long-distance cattle drives dwindled in the mid-1880s due to:
- Farmers enclosing pastures with barbed wire.
- Severe winters leading to the loss of millions of cattle.
The industry then reorganized into larger, enclosed ranches near trail connections.

By 1890, urban populations were higher in the West, reflecting trends in other regions.
The rise of corporate enterprises across various sectors, including mining, marked this era.
- Industries included:
- Mining for iron, copper, gold, and silver (notable regions: California, Nevada, Colorado).
- Gold and silver rushes occurred in areas such as the Dakotas, Idaho, and Alaska towards the end of the century.

The stereotypical image of the cowboy—white, rugged, and individualistic—was popularized by actors like John Wayne and Clint Eastwood.
The actual demographic of cowboys included a significant number of people of color, including blacks, Mexican-Americans, and Native Americans.
The portrayal of cowboys in Western films often resulted in a whitewashing of history, with many contributions and stories of black cowboys being overlooked.
Notable figures like Bass Reeves, a black deputy US marshal, demonstrated the diverse reality of the frontier.

The policies towards American Indians, such as removing children to boarding schools, echo those of settler societies globally.
Such practices aimed to assimilate Indigenous populations and eradicate their cultural identities.
The Bureau of Indian Affairs played a significant role in implementing these policies, resulting in a drastic decline of Indigenous land and population by the turn of the twentieth century.

Students analyzed representations of cowboys and questioned the accuracy of historical portrayals in media.
A focus on how the Western cinematic tradition obscured the realities of a multiethnic frontier, with contributions from diverse groups underestimated or ignored.
There was also an acknowledgment of economic systems and entitlement shifts affecting indigenous populations throughout the westward expansion.
Confirmed states that entered the Union from 1865 to 1890:
- Nebraska, Colorado, North and South Dakota, Montana, Washington, Idaho, Wyoming.

The settlement and incorporation of the West into the national economy not only contributed to the establishment of new states and agricultural practices but also fundamentally altered the lives of Indigenous peoples, often through violence, coercion, and the suppression of their cultures and rights. Understanding these dynamics is critical in grasping the complexities of American history and ongoing legacies of settler colonialism.