Concepts and Representations

Thought and Learning Objectives

• Key theme of cognitive processes.

• Emphasis on distinguishing between various facets of thought.

• Aims include understanding:

  • Different types of representations.

  • Models of categorization.

  • The role of schemas and scripts in cognition.

Concepts and Representation

• Exploration of how concepts are formed and understood.

Analogical Representations:

• Discussion on analogical representations as a pictorial translation of the world.

  • Example of analogical representation queried regarding “TALLAHASSEE”.

Symbolic Representations:

• Explanation of symbolic representations as an arbitrary (random) translation of the world.

  • Example: Seeing a light bulb as an idea

Knowledge and Thinking

Thinking Defined:

• Definition of thinking as the manipulation of mental representations.

• Breakdown of processes involved in thinking:

  • (a) Taking information and considering it.

  • (b) Using information to build models of the world.

  • (c) Setting goals and planning actions.

Organization of Knowledge: Categories

• Focus on how knowledge is organized, often in categories

Categorization Process:

• Discusses the process of categorization based on common features in species.

  • Example includes:

    • Eyebrow muscles, Social behaviors, and features such as being intelligent and having four legs.

• Not every animal, or dog in this case, has those traits

Categorization Strategies

• Description of different strategies for categorization:

Prototype Model:

• Definition of a prototype as the perfect idea of a dog.

• Reinforcement of the concept of a prototype.

  • Example: The best idea of a dog could be a golden retriever

Exemplar Model:

• Focus on exemplars as examples from which categories are understood.

• Comparing each candidate to a wide range of group members 

  • Example: comparing to dogs as a whole

Schemas and Scripts

Schemas

• Examination of schemas and their roles in organizing knowledge.

  • Example: How you would behave at a chicken tender place vs. a fancy dinner

Scripts

• You know what will happen

  • Example: At a nice place, you expect to pay after your meal vs. paying ahead of time at the chicken place

Decision Making

• Introduction to decision-making processes with a focus on mental models involved.

• Ways to make correct decisions: Identify the important criteria and then select the best option

Learning Objectives for Decision Making

• Goals for learning about decision-making:

  • Definition of heuristics.

  • Evaluation of the advantages and disadvantages of using heuristics.

  • Generation of real-life examples involving heuristics.

  • Identification of strategies used in daily problem-solving.

Heuristics: Mental Shortcuts

• Explanation of heuristics as mental shortcuts to facilitate quick and efficient decision-making.

  • Mention of “RULE OF THUMB” as a common heuristic.

Heuristic 1: Relative Comparisons

• Anchoring: Making decisions based on available reference points

  • Examples:

    • Assessing test scores based on context (75 scores from different averages).

    • What score did you get? If you got a 75 and everyone got that, you feel better as opposed to you getting a 75 when everyone else passed.

• Framing: Making decisions based on what information is emphasized

  • Emphasis on how information is presented can influence decisions.

  • Example: Sales; Movie theater popcorn (you can get twice as much for only a dollar more)

Heuristic 2: Availability

• Insight into decision-making influenced by readily available information:

  • Example: Dressing warmer because it has been cold the past few days

Heuristic 3: Representativeness

• Description of making decisions based on category stereotypes and assumptions.

  • Example: Long-established stereotype that people who wear glasses are smart

Heuristic 4: Confirmation Bias

• Focusing only on information that supports your views

  • Cartoon illustration about ignoring contradictory data in decision-making.

Cons of Heuristics

• Can lead to stereotypes 

• They can just be flat out wrong

Emotional Factors in Decision Making:

• Emotional impacts of decisions

• Prior experiences 

• Emotional forecasting (I’ve never been in this situation before, but this is how I think I will feel)

Problem Solving

• Identify present and goal states

• Overcome obstacles to achieve the goal state

  • Ex: hungry and you want food, so you go and get food; Tower of Hanoi Problem

Problem Restructuring

• Representing the problem in a novel way

• Breaking out of previous experience 

• Functional Fixedness: A cognitive bias that describes the tendency to perceive and use objects only in their traditional or familiar functions, without considering alternative uses

  • Ex: Someone is trying to fix their hair that got messed up, but doesn’t remember that you can use your phone as a mirror