Unit 10

Understanding Theories of Motivation

• Motivation theories in AP Psychology.
• Complete the Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation Inventory.

Instincts

• Instincts are innate, fixed patterns of behavior in animals triggered by specific stimuli, driving predictable actions.
• Humans, unlike many animals, do not typically exhibit instinctual behavior.
• Example: Sea turtles instinctively move toward the ocean upon hatching, guided by natural light, which is crucial for their survival.
• Many non-human animals are motivated by instincts (innate, typically fixed patterns of behavior in animals in response to certain stimuli).

Drive-Reduction Theory

• Behavior is motivated by the need to reduce internal drives caused by physiological deficits (e.g., hunger, thirst) to restore homeostasis.
• Homeostasis: The body’s effort to maintain stable internal conditions.
• Example: On a hot day, thirst motivates drinking water to reduce dehydration and restore the body's balance.

Homeostatic Response Examples

• Overheating during exercise: Temperature regulation via sweating.
  • Explanation: Sweat cools the body as it evaporates.
• Dehydration: Water balance via thirst sensation.
  • Explanation: Thirst encourages water intake to restore fluid balance.
• Drop in blood glucose: Energy balance via hunger.
  • Explanation: Low blood sugar triggers eating to restore glucose levels.
• Lack of sleep: Rest and recovery via sleepiness.
  • Explanation: Sleep deprivation triggers increased sleepiness, urging the body to rest and recover.
• Cold environment: Temperature regulation via shivering.
  • Explanation: Exposure to cold triggers shivering, an involuntary muscle movement that generates heat and raises body temperature.

Belongingness

• The innate human desire to form and sustain close, meaningful relationships, driving behavior and affecting emotional health.
• Example: A teenager joins a soccer team at a new school, forming friendships that fulfill their need for belonging, enhancing social life, happiness, and academic performance.

Arousal Theory

• Individuals are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness, increasing it when too low and decreasing it when too high, to enhance performance and well-being.
• Example: A college student takes a break from studying to go for a jog, increasing arousal levels and returning to studies with renewed energy and concentration.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

• Performance increases with physiological or mental arousal (alertness), but only up to a point; when arousal levels become too high, performance decreases.
• Individuals perform best when they are at an optimal level of arousal.
• Example: A high school student performs well on a math exam with moderate stress but performs poorly due to excessive anxiety on exam day.

Yerkes-Dodson Law: Performance vs. Arousal

• Optimal performance occurs at a moderate arousal level.
• Performance peaks at lower levels of arousal for difficult tasks and higher levels for easy tasks.

Sensation-Seeking Theory

• Proposes that motivation is driven by the need for varied, novel, and intense experiences.
• Example: A teenager joins an adventure club, participating in activities like rock climbing and skydiving to seek thrill and adrenaline.

Thrill Seeking

• A component of sensation-seeking theory where individuals are motivated by the desire for intense and exciting experiences, often involving risk.
• Example: A young adult seeks out extreme sports like bungee jumping and snowboarding for the adrenaline rush.

Adventure Seeking

• A component of sensation-seeking theory where individuals are motivated by the desire for new and challenging experiences, often involving physical activities and exploration.
• Example: A college student plans weekend trips to hike in unfamiliar mountains and explore caves.

Disinhibition

• Refers to the tendency to seek out social and experiential thrills by engaging in behaviors that are typically restrained by social norms and inhibitions.
• Example: A normally reserved individual attends a party and engages in uncharacteristic behaviors like dancing wildly and drinking excessively.

Incentive Theory

• Behavior is motivated by the desire for external rewards or incentives, such as money, praise, or other tangible benefits.
• Example: A sales employee is motivated by a bonus for top performers, driving them to work harder to achieve higher performance.

Self-Determination Theory

• Proposes that people are motivated by intrinsic (internal) motivations, such as personal growth and fulfillment, or extrinsic (external) motivations, such as rewards and recognition.
• Example: An elementary teacher starts an after-school tutoring program motivated by the intrinsic satisfaction of helping students learn and grow.

Intrinsic Motivation

• Refers to engaging in activities for their own sake, driven by internal rewards such as personal satisfaction, enjoyment, or a sense of achievement.
• Example: A teenager plays the guitar for hours every day, motivated by the sheer enjoyment and satisfaction of mastering new songs.

Extrinsic Motivation

• Engaging in behavior due to external rewards or pressures, such as money, grades, or approval from others.
• Example: A college student maintains a high GPA to obtain a scholarship that will reduce tuition costs.

Lewin’s Motivational Conflicts Theory

• Describes the psychological struggles individuals face when making decisions.

Approach

• The inclination or desire to move towards a goal seen as desirable or rewarding; drawn towards the positive aspects.

Avoidance

• The motivation to move away from or avoid a goal seen as undesirable or potentially harmful; wants to escape or avoid the situation’s negative aspects.

Approach-Approach Conflicts

• Occur when an individual must choose between two desirable options, leading to a conflict of which positive outcome to pursue.
• Example: A high school senior must choose between two top universities, each with its own attractive benefits.

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflicts

• Occur when an individual must choose between two undesirable options, leading to a conflict of which negative outcome to avoid.
• Example: A young adult is stuck in a job they dislike but needs it for financial stability, facing the anxiety of unemployment if they quit.

Approach-Avoidance Conflicts

• Occur when an individual is drawn to and repelled by the same option, leading to a conflict between the desire for a positive outcome and the fear of a negative consequence.
• Example: A recent college graduate is offered their dream job in a different state but hesitates due to leaving family and friends behind.

Dan Pink’s Drive

• Focus on intrinsic motivation and autonomy.
• Could these principles be applied in a school setting?
• Capitalizing on Atlassian’s one-day-a-quarter policy if teachers offered it.

Formative Multiple-Choice Practice Questions

1. A) Extrinsic Motivation
2. B) Approach-Approach Conflict
3. A) Sensation-Seeking Theory
4. B) Drive Reduction Theory
5. C) Approach-Avoidance Conflict

Eating and Hunger

• Eating is a complex motivated behavior that demonstrates how physical and mental processes interact.
• Ghrelin: A hormone produced in the stomach that stimulates appetite.
• Leptin: A hormone produced by fat cells that helps regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger.
• The hypothalamus and pituitary gland work together to regulate hunger and appetite.
• Example: After a long day, ghrelin drives hunger, motivating someone to eat. Leptin signals satiety, reducing appetite after the meal.
• Eating is powerfully affected by the appearance, aroma, and flavor of food.
• Eating is influenced by social and cultural factors, such as eating more in social situations.
• Biological and psychological processes may not function properly for some, resulting in obesity or eating disorders.
• The DSM-5 categorizes anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorders, and other similar disorders under feeding and eating disorders.

Science Practice: Statistical Significance

• Statistical significance indicates whether the observed differences in cognitive performance between the sleep deprivation group and the control group are likely due to chance or if they reflect a genuine effect of sleep deprivation.
• Statistical significance helps researchers determine the reliability and validity of their findings.
• NOT LIKELY DUE TO CHANCE = Statistical significance.

Consciousness

• The state of being aware of and able to perceive one's thoughts, feelings, sensations, and surroundings.
• Example: Waking up in the morning and being aware of your bedroom and surroundings.

Circadian Rhythm

• The natural, internal process that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and repeats roughly every 24 hours.
• Example: Feeling more alert during the day and drowsy at night.

Jet Lag

• A temporary disruption of the body's circadian rhythm due to rapid travel across multiple time zones.

Shift Work

• Employment schedules that require working outside of typical daytime hours, often disrupting the body's natural circadian rhythm.

Stages of Sleep

• NREM and REM sleep stages.

NREM Stage 1

• The first stage of non-rapid eye movement sleep characterized by drifting in and out of sleep, lasting only a few minutes.
• Brain waves slow down, muscles relax, and individuals may experience sudden muscle contractions known as hypnic jerks.
• Also might experience hallucinations.
• Example: Sitting in a comfortable chair and feeling yourself nodding off, then experiencing a sensation of jerking awake.
• Most psychologists explain that falling feeling as a side-effect of hypnagogic jerks as your waking and sleeping brain systems wrestle for control.
• Others claim that your brain interprets your sudden muscle relaxation as a falling sensation.

NREM Stage 2

• The second stage of non-rapid eye movement sleep characterized by light sleep, lasting about 20 minutes.
• Brain waves further slow down, and sleep spindles (short bursts of brain activity) and K-complexes (sudden, sharp waveforms) appear.
• Example: Lying in bed and feeling more deeply relaxed, with thoughts becoming less coherent and experiencing brief muscle twitches.

NREM Stage 3

• The deepest stage of non-rapid eye movement sleep characterized by the presence of predominantly delta waves.
• Restoration of Resources: The process during sleep where the body and brain replenish energy, repair tissues, and remove waste products, promoting physical and mental well-being.
• Example: Being deeply asleep during the night and difficult to wake up from, with slow and regular breathing.

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep

• A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, vivid dreams, and muscle paralysis.
• It is associated with increased brain activity, including dreaming, and plays a role in memory consolidation and emotional processing.
• Example: Being fast asleep and experiencing a vivid and exhilarating dream with rapid eye movements and muscle paralysis.
• One 90-minute sleep cycle consists of: NREM-1, NREM-2, NREM-3, NREM-2, REM, (may awaken - more common for adults)
• After two or three cycles, the brain mostly alternates between stage 2 and REM.
• The SleepCycle app (and other “smart alarms”) uses your phone’s accelerometer to track when you’re in REM vs. non-REM sleep, knowing that you experience sleep paralysis during REM; this allows the alarm to wake you up at the optimal time.
• Fun fact: All mammals experience REM sleep, along with birds and possibly reptiles.

Theories of Sleep

• Protection (Evolutionary Perspective)
• Recuperation (Biological Perspective)
• Memory (Cognitive Perspective)
• Creativity (Cognitive Perspective)
• Growth (Biological Perspective)

REM Rebound

• The phenomenon where the body increases the time spent in REM sleep after a period of REM deprivation.
• It occurs as a compensatory response to the lack of REM sleep, often resulting in more intense and frequent REM sleep episodes.
• Example: After a stressful week, vivid dreams and a deeper, more restorative sleep occur during the weekend.

Activation-Synthesis (Dreams)

• A theory proposing that dreams are the result of random neural activity in the brainstem during REM sleep, which is then interpreted and synthesized by the cerebral cortex into a narrative or story.
• Example: Experiencing a dream where you're flying through a cityscape made of candy, with the brainstem sending random neural signals during REM sleep.

Consolidation Theory (Dreams)

• A theory suggesting that dreams play a role in the memory consolidation and processing of memories.
• During sleep, the brain organizes and integrates information acquired throughout the day, contributing to memory storage and learning.
• Example: Studying for an exam and then dreaming about answering the exam questions with ease, as the brain consolidates and processes memories during sleep.

Insomnia

• A sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or experiencing restorative sleep, leading to daytime impairment.
• Example: Struggling to fall asleep, waking up frequently, and feeling unrested despite trying various sleep strategies.

Narcolepsy

• A sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness, sudden episodes of muscle weakness (cataplexy), sleep paralysis, and hallucinations during sleep onset or awakening.
• Example: Experiencing overwhelming drowsiness and falling asleep unexpectedly, along with symptoms like muscle weakness and hallucinations.

Sleep Apnea

• A sleep disorder characterized by pauses in breathing or shallow breathing during sleep, leading to disrupted sleep patterns, daytime fatigue, and other health problems.
• Example: Breathing becoming increasingly shallow and then stopping altogether for several seconds during sleep, leading to exhaustion in the morning.

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

• A sleep disorder where individuals physically act out their dreams during REM sleep, potentially causing injury to themselves or others due to loss of muscle paralysis.
• Example: Thrashing around violently in bed during a vivid and intense dream, unaware of the actions.

Somnambulism

• A sleep disorder commonly known as sleepwalking, characterized by walking or performing other activities while still asleep.
• Example: A child sleepwalking around the house in a daze, with their eyes closed and movements slow and uncoordinated.

Night Terrors and Sleepwalking

• Occurs during NREM-3 sleep – not linked to dreams, since dreams occur during REM sleep.
• Bizkit, the sleepwalking dog

Claim Challenge: Sleep Disorders

• Develop and justify an argument about the impact of sleep disorders on overall health and well-being.

Formative Multiple-Choice Practice Questions

1. B) Jet Lag
2. C) NREM Stage 3
3. A) REM Rebound
4. C) REM
5. D) Sleep Apnea

Lucid Dreaming

• Some studies suggest that if the lateral prefrontal cortex (logic center of the brain), which is usually inactive during sleep, somehow gets activated, it can promote lucidity

Remembering Dreams

• A February 2014 study found a correlation between activity in two regions of the brain – the temporoparietal junction (combines different senses together) and the medial prefrontal cortex (involved in memory and decision making) and…
  • Ability to remember dreams
  • Responsiveness to stimuli during sleep
  • Frequency of waking up during sleep
• Some theorize that in order to remember our dreams, we must briefly awaken during the dream

Other Fun Facts

• There is (to my knowledge) no evidence stating that our brain cannot create new faces in our dreams
• On average, today’s teenagers get 2 fewer hours of sleep each night than teenagers 70 years ago did; some estimate that 80% of teenagers are chronically sleep deprived
• During puberty, your SCN shifts to signal your body to go to sleep around 10 or 11 pm and wake up around 7 or 8 am… unfortunately, society generally doesn’t operate in ways that are conducive to your natural circadian rhythms

Understanding Theories on Emotion

• Emotion is a feeling that involves our thoughts, body reactions, and actions, and is influenced by what happens inside us and around us.
• The three components of emotion are: physiological, cognitive, and behavioral.
• Affect is a display of emotion.
• Example: A college student feels joy and excitement upon seeing their best friend, demonstrating how an event triggers a powerful and immediate emotional response.

Arousal Comes Before Emotion (James-Lange)

• Suggests that emotions follow bodily arousal; we feel sad because we cry, and afraid because we tremble.
• Example: Hearing footsteps at night leads to increased heart rate, sweating, and muscle tension, which then leads to feeling fear.

Facial-Feedback Hypothesis

• Suggests that facial expressions can influence emotions; smiling can make you feel happier, and frowning can make you feel sadder.
• Example: Intentionally smiling in the mirror helps to improve mood by enhancing feelings of happiness.

Arousal and Emotion Occur Simultaneously (Cannon-Bard)

• Arousal and emotion occur simultaneously and independently; an emotion-triggering stimulus causes both bodily arousal and emotional experience at the same time.
• Example: Watching a horror movie simultaneously causes a racing heart and the emotion of fear.

Arousal + Cognitive Label = Emotion (Schachter-Singer)

• Emotion is the result of physiological arousal and a cognitive label; our interpretation of arousal determines the specific emotion we experience.
• Example: Hearing a loud noise in a dark alley causes a pounding heart and sweating, but realizing it's just a cat leads to feeling relief rather than fear.

Elicitors

• Stimuli or events that trigger an emotional response in an individual.
• Elicitors may regulate how people from different genders, ages, or socioeconomic classes within a culture can display and interpret emotions.
• Example: Hearing a piercing scream in a park elicits a surge of fear and anxiety.

Broaden-and-Build Theory of Emotion

• Positive emotions help us think more openly and try new things, making us stronger. Negative emotions do the opposite, making us think narrowly and act less.
• Example: Implementing a gratitude journal exercise in a classroom leads to increased feelings of happiness and students being more creative and socially connected.

Universal Emotions

• The idea that certain emotional expressions are recognized and experienced similarly across different cultures.
• Emotions such as anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, and fear are often considered universal, though research shows mixed results regarding their expression and recognition across cultures.
• Example: A traveler crying in a remote village is met with comforting gestures from the villagers, who recognize the expression of sadness.

Display Rules

• Cultural norms that dictate how, when, and where individuals should express emotions.
• Example: A high school student suppresses disappointment in class but freely expresses it at home.

Reading Emotions

• Six emotions are universally recognized: fear, disgust, anger, sadness, surprise, happiness (contempt recently added).
• Women generally are more emotionally expressive, better at reading emotions, and show more neurological activation at emotional inputs

Expressed Emotion – Nature or Nurture?

• Some emotional expressions are universal (shown previously)
• Microexpressions are often unconscious
• People often donʼt smile at a triumph until there are other people around
• People born blind express emotion in much the same way as sighted people
• Reminding people of money makes them less emotionally expressive/perceptive
• People in individualistic cultures display emotion more visibly than collectivists
• Women generally are more emotionally expressive, better at reading emotions, and show more neurological activation at emotional inputs
• Beckman, 2007 –people were quicker to pair “happy” with “female” and “angry” with “male”
• Emotional tears contain neurotransmitters associated with pain relief

Formative - Multiple Choice Practice Questions

1. B) Facial-Feedback Hypothesis
2. C) Display Rules
3. A) Universal Emotions
4. C) Broaden-and-Build theory
5. A) Emotions result from the simultaneous occurrence of physiological arousal and its cognitive interpretation

Recap: Theories of Emotion

• 1.Cannon-Bard
• 2.Zajonc
• 3.Schachter-Singer
• 4.Schachter-Singer
• 5.James-Lange
• 6. Schachter-Singer
• 7. Cannon-Bard
• 8. Schachter-Singer
• 9. James-Lange
• 10. Zajonc
• Emotions = bodily arousal + expressive behaviors + conscious experience

Understanding Stress and Coping

• Health Psychology: The study of how psychological, behavioral, and cultural factors contribute to physical health and illness.

Stress Discussion

• Stress is a normal part of life, and we all experience it from time to time. Long-term stress can have negative effects on the brain and body, but it is good to be aware of that fact and find ways to reduce your stress.

Stress

• Stress is the response of the body and mind to challenges or demands, characterized by physical, emotional, and mental reactions.
• Stress can cause physical problems like high blood pressure (hypertension), headaches, and a weakened immune system (immune suppression).
• Example: A college student under exam stress experiences sleep disturbances, fatigue, overwhelm, and diminished focus. Coping strategies include a structured study schedule, exercise, and relaxation techniques.

Stressors

• Events or conditions that trigger stress by challenging an individual's ability to cope or adjust.
• Example: A high school student balancing academics, sports, and a part-time job experiences exhaustion, anxiety, and mood swings.

Eustress (Motivating)

• Positive stress that enhances motivation, performance, and emotional well-being.
• Example: A student preparing for AP exams is motivated by the prospect of earning college credits and enhancing college applications.

Distress (Debilitating)

• Negative stress that decreases motivation, impairs performance, and leads to emotional and physical problems.
• Example: A college student with unexpected financial difficulties experiences constant worry which impacts their academic focus. The student develops mood swings and withdraws socially.

Types of Stressors

• Daily Hassles: Minor irritations that occur regularly. (e.g An individual commutes to work daily in heavy traffic.)
• Significant Life Changes: Major events that require adaptation. (e.g An individual recently undergoes a major life transition after relocating to a new city for a job opportunity.)
• Catastrophes: Unpredictable, large-scale events that cause widespread stress. (e.g A community is struck by a sudden, devastating hurricane)

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

• Stressful or traumatic events in childhood that can have long-lasting effects on health and well-being throughout a person's life.
• Example: A child growing up with a parent struggling with substance abuse experiences chronic anxiety, mistrust, and challenges in emotional regulation and interpersonal relationships.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

• A three-stage response to stress that includes alarm, resistance, and exhaustion, describing how the body reacts and adapts to stress over time.
• Example: A high school student taking on multiple AP classes and extracurriculars experiences alarm, then resistance, and potentially exhaustion if stress continues without adequate breaks.

Alarm Reaction Phase

• The initial stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome, where the body reacts to a stressor with a