The Ancien Régime

• France in the late 18th century was ruled by Louis XVI, an absolute monarch.

• France was difficult to govern due to regional differences, different legal systems, and customs barriers.

• Peasants made up 80% of the population and faced heavy taxation, inefficient agriculture, and poverty.

• Urban population faced unemployment, declining wages, and high food prices, leading to unrest and bread riots.

• Middle class, educated and frustrated by lack of political power, played a crucial role in the revolution.

The Church and the Aristocracy

• The Roman Catholic Church was wealthy, controlled education, and resisted reforms.

• The aristocracy, a tiny minority, owned most of the land and wealth, paid few taxes, and enjoyed privileges.

• French aristocracy was hostile to trade and commerce, unlike the British aristocracy.

• Division within the clergy and aristocracy weakened their ability to resist revolutionary forces.

King Louis XVI and the Parlements

• Louis XVI inherited absolute power but faced challenges from courtiers and ministers on the role of the monarch.

• Some wanted to increase the king's power, while others sought to limit it by consulting the aristocracy.

• Enlightenment ideas influenced a few to reform the system for efficiency and inclusivity.

• Parlements, courts with noble lawyers, could delay or prevent royal orders, leading to conflicts with intendants appointed by the king.

In summary, the 1789 revolution in France was fueled by social divisions, economic hardships, discontent with the monarchy, resistance from the Church and aristocracy, and conflicting views on the role of the king in governance. The revolution was a response to the oppressive Ancien Régime and marked a significant shift in power dynamics within French society.

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• Divisions within the aristocracy and clergy reflected in local administration

  • Bitter local rivalries made France difficult to govern

  • Louis XVI was religious but weak and indecisive

  • Resistance to reform led to his execution in 1793

• Enlightenment in 18th-century France

  • Influential thinkers like Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot, Rousseau, and Quesnay

  • Criticized existing systems and advocated for improvements

  • Influence on revolutionary leaders and Napoleon Bonaparte

• Importance of Enlightenment ideas

  • Provided a basis for the revolutionary process in France

  • Encouraged debate and argument on public issues

  • Helped shape the new governance after the collapse of the Ancien Régime

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• Impact of Enlightenment ideas on French society

  • Challenged established ideas and social structures

  • Advocated for equality before the law and independent thinking

  • Contributed to the start of the revolution in 1789

• Political and economic factors in the revolution

  • Alliance with American colonists against Britain in 1778

  • Turgot's warnings against involvement in wars ignored

  • Necker's appointment as finance minister due to France's dire financial state

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• Jacques Necker (1732–1804)

  • Finance minister three times, caused and attempted to solve France's economic problems

  • Advised Louis XVI to call the Estates General in 1789

  • Faced challenges in accurately assessing royal finances and implementing reforms

• Charles de Calonne's reforms in 1786

  • Submitted proposals to address France's economic problems

  • Recognized the need for financial reform to prevent bankruptcy

• France's economic problems before the revolution

  • High state debts and borrowing at high interest rates

  • Costly war with Britain leading to deeper national debt

  • Growing concern about the state of royal finances and the need for stability

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• Taxation Reform

  • Increase taxes for the wealthy to stimulate the economy and encourage commerce and industry.

  • Gain confidence in France's economy to borrow money at lower interest rates.

• Assembly of Notables

  • Made up of nobles and clergy, with limited support for proposed reforms.

  • Lack of clarity on the role and authority of the Assembly.

• Financial and Political Crisis

  • Calonne's dismissal led to public concern and protests.

  • Opposition to increased taxes and demands for accurate royal financial accounts.

• Paris Parlement

  • Refused to support tax increases without accurate royal accounts.

  • King's refusal led to protests and banishment of parlement members.

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• Growing Unrest

  • Anger at the king's refusal to intervene in the Netherlands.

  • Army viewed as unreliable due to lack of funds and incompetent officer corps.

  • Demand for social, economic, and political change through pamphlets and protests.

• Economic Challenges

  • Hailstorms destroying harvest led to food shortage and higher prices.

  • Appointment of Necker as finance minister to address financial crisis.

• Estates General

  • Summoned for the first time since 1614 to address France's problems.

  • Cahiers de doléances presented demands from the clergy, nobility, and the Third Estate.

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• Cahiers de doléances

  • Demands from the clergy, nobility, and the Third Estate for reforms and rights.

• Estates General Meeting

  • Held in May 1789 at Versailles amidst social, economic, and political unrest.

  • Expectations from the monarch, court, and the French people for significant outcomes.

• Conflicting Aims

  • Challenges arose as the three Estates had conflicting goals.

  • Equal voting rights for all Estates in decision-making process.

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• Estates General Opening Assembly

  • Engraved by Isidore Stanislas Helman after a drawing by Charles Monnet

  • King's main concern: financial problems

  • Educated middle class wanted extensive government overhaul

  • Third Estate demanded reforms, faced resistance from First and Second Estates

  • Third Estate changed name to 'National Assembly' on June 17, 1789

  • 'Tennis Court Oath' taken by the National Assembly to establish a new constitution

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• Tensions in France

  • Hunger due to poor harvest led to tense situation

  • King's unhelpful decisions fueled tensions

  • Dismissal of Necker seen as a setback for reforms

• Responsibility for Crisis of 1789

  • Factors: King, Ancien Régime, Necker, Church, Aristocracy, French economy

  • Discussion on factors responsible for the crisis

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• Responses to Louis XVI’s actions

  • Storming of the Bastille

    • Symbol of royal tyranny attacked on July 14, 1789

    • Bastille destroyed, governor killed

    • Parisian mob demonstrated anger and determination for change

• French Revolution

  • 'Great Fear' in summer of 1789

  • Mass refusal to pay taxes, looting of noblemen's homes

  • Third Estate representatives at Versailles took initiative

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• August Decrees

  • Abolished privileges of nobles, duties owed by peasants to landlords, parlements, provincial estates, and reduced the status of the Roman Catholic Church in France.

• Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

  • Passed in August 1789 by the National Assembly.

  • Influenced by Enlightenment thinkers.

  • Established principles for the new government system.

  • Recognized rights like liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.

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• Decree on Government Differences

  • Outlined principles like liberty, law, equality, innocence until proven guilty, freedom of speech, and public contribution.

  • Stressed the importance of law and public accountability.

• Revolutionary Change

  • Differences between Ancien Régime and new decrees were revolutionary.

  • Supported by evidence like protection of rights, equality before the law, and public accountability.

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• Fundamental Principles of Government

  • Established that power came from the nation, the National Assembly had legislative power, and the king was under the law.

• Women's March on Versailles

  • Women marched to Versailles demanding changes.

  • King and royal family were escorted to Paris by the crowd.

• Influence of Parisian Crowd

  • Radical Parisian crowd influenced revolutionary change.

  • National Assembly's move to Paris was significant.

Reflection

• Defining Revolution

  • Methods of defining revolution varied.

  • Discussion on defining revolution may lead to changes in methods.

• Influence of Events

  • Events like the Women's March on Versailles and public pressure led to revolutionary changes.

• Significance of National Assembly

  • National Assembly's decisions and moves were crucial in the revolutionary period.

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• Historians have different views on the reasons for the French Revolution in 1789

  • Liberals in the early 19th century believed it was a natural progression towards representative government

  • Conservatives viewed it as crimes by lower and middle classes leading to the Terror

  • Later historians suggested famine, political and ideological motivations, desire for equality and democracy

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• French governments were unstable from 1790 to 1795 due to various factors

  • Lack of agreement on governance and deep antagonism between Paris and regions

  • Social and economic issues, worsened by war with Austria in 1792

  • Rapid radical changes, including abolition of monarchy and aristocracy

• Creation of a new calendar during the revolutionary period

  • Started on 22 September 1792 after acceptance of the republican constitution

  • Napoleon later reverted to the old calendar in 1805

• Issues remaining after the destruction of the old system

  • Getting the king to accept changes and ensuring the Assembly's capability

  • Need for a new type of government with shared power and fair systems

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• Reliability of an image depicting the events in France during 1789

  • Shows the Third Estate breaking free from chains, causing fear in the aristocracy and clergy

• Challenges faced by the Assembly in 1790

  • Lack of clear leadership and understanding of people's desires

  • Inexperience in lawmaking and opposition from nobility and clergy

• Revolutionary groups in the Assembly

  • Formation of clubs representing conservatives, moderate reformers, and radical reformers

  • Jacobins as the most radical group advocating for the execution of the king and end of aristocracy

  • Feuillants and Girondins as other significant political clubs with differing ideologies

• Failures of counter-revolutionary groups

  • Attempts to restore the Bourbon monarchy were unsuccessful due to lack of realism

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• Louis XVI and his courtiers failed to understand the depth of anti-government sentiment in France before 1789.

  • The king could not accept limits to his powers and the need to rule with the people's consent.

• The royalists, including Louis XVIII, lacked unity and effective leadership.

  • Different factions had conflicting aims on restoring the monarchy or establishing a constitutional monarchy.

  • Internal divisions weakened the royalists, and they underestimated the loyalty of many to the revolution.

• France's opposition to the revolution was divided with varying aims.

  • Some prioritized restoring the Church over the king.

  • Regions like Brittany were willing to fight but not to overthrow the revolution in Paris.

• The royalists lacked effective foreign support, with no strong army backing them.

  • France's military strength and revolutionary morale were significant factors in repelling invasions.

• Many in France welcomed the gains of the revolution, deterring support for the royalists.

• The Terror and actions by revolutionary armies discouraged royalist backing.

• Revolutionary groups aimed for reforms in taxation, local government, justice, and the Church.

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• The National Assembly implemented policies to address the financial crisis.

  • Sold Church lands and valuables, issued assignats (French currency), and introduced income tax targeting the wealthy.

  • Abolished consumption taxes like the 'Gabelle' and imposed a new land tax based on wealth.

• Reformed local government by creating 83 new departments for better administration.

  • Established effective local government structures with elected officials.

• Overhauled the justice system for openness, accountability, and people's election of key officials.

• Transformed the Church into an agent of the state, with state control over clergy and church lands.

• Major split over clergy taking an oath on the Civil Constitution of the Clergy.

• Political instability grew as questions arose about the king's role and power in the future.

• Louis XVI's reluctance to agree to changes raised concerns about a return to the Ancien Régime.

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• Context of 1790:

  • Bad harvest in summer of 1790 leading to potential hunger and unrest.

  • Dissent not limited to lower classes; nobles and clergy resisting changes.

  • Debate on voting rights for elections; men, men of property, or even women suggested.

  • Radical press advocating for extreme measures with no censorship.

• National Assembly's Success by 1790:

  • Criteria for success and how well Assembly met them.

  • Arguments for and against Assembly's success.

  • Fundamental problems faced by France at the end of 1790.

• Changes in Government 1790-1795:

  • Hopes for stability in 1791 dashed by various factors.

  • New Constitution faced lack of agreement among French people.

  • Poor harvests, king's behavior, counter-revolutionary movement, and radicalism causing unrest.

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• Flight to Varennes:

  • King's attempted escape to Austrian Netherlands in June 1791.

  • Capture at Varennes, return to Paris, and becoming a prisoner.

  • Nobility escaping abroad, known as 'émigrés', posing threat to revolution.

  • Debate in Assembly between moderates and radicals on king's fate.

• Champ de Mars:

  • Massacre in Paris in July, Champs de Mars, by National Guard.

  • Seen as counter-revolutionary, leading to radicalization.

  • Completion of new constitution in September 1791, establishing a constitutional monarchy.

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• King's Intentions:

  • King's perspective on France's situation and his role in it.

  • His plans to restore royal authority and deal with the revolution.

• Foreign Threats and Impact of War:

  • Fear of intervention by Austria and Prussia to support Louis.

  • Nobles fleeing abroad and seeking help to restore order in France.

  • Declaration of Pilnitz in 1791 supporting Louis and opposing the revolution.

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• Background of the Revolution

  • Poor harvest in 1791 led to a shortage of bread and rising food prices.

  • Clergy's refusal to take the oath caused anger.

  • Radicals in the Assembly demanded war against Austria and Prussia to force the king's support for the revolution.

• Declaration of War

  • Assembly declared war on Austria in April 1792.

  • France was unprepared, leading to military disasters against the Austrians.

  • War forced French citizens to choose sides and led to an alliance of middle and working classes against the monarch and aristocrats.

• The Journée

  • In August 1792, the September Massacres occurred in Paris.

  • The National Guard stormed the Tuileries Palace, leading to the arrest and imprisonment of the king and his family.

  • Power shifted from the Assembly to the Paris mob, marking a critical event in the revolution.

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• Instability and Terror (1793-95)

  • National Convention abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic.

  • Louis XVI was executed in early 1793, leading to increased enemies for the revolution.

  • Chaos and instability ensued due to ongoing war, financial strain, lack of experienced leaders, regional opposition, and food riots.

  • The radical press and the influence of the sans-culottes added to the turmoil.

THINK LIKE A HISTORIAN

• Louis XVI faced challenges in upholding the Ancien Régime during the revolution.

• The decision to execute Louis XVI in 1793 exacerbated instability and created more enemies for the revolution.

• Various factors contributed to the chaos and unrest in France during 1793-95, including war, financial strain, lack of experienced leaders, regional opposition, and food shortages.

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• Crimes Accused Against the King:

  • The king is accused of causing the blood of Frenchmen to flow.

• Assessment of King's Guilt:

  • The king is considered guilty of the crimes mentioned in the source.

• Significance of the King's Death:

  • The death of the king marked a turning point in the French Revolution.

  • It led to the establishment of a new Constitution and the rise of the Committee of Public Safety.

  • The Committee took radical actions, including the Law of Suspects, resulting in mass arrests and executions.

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• Establishment of the Reign of Terror:

  • The Revolutionary Tribunal was instituted to punish enemies of the people.

  • Various offenses were listed that could lead to death penalties.

• Cult of Robespierre:

  • Robespierre aimed to replace Roman Catholicism with a 'Republic of Virtue'.

  • Introduced the Cult of the Supreme Being and led ceremonial processions.

• Views on Robespierre:

  • Robespierre is seen as a controversial figure with differing opinions on his role in the revolution.

  • Some believe he saved the revolution, while others criticize his dictatorial rule and executions.

• Robespierre's Vision:

  • Robespierre envisioned a society based on virtue, duty, and loyalty to democracy.

  • He emphasized the importance of morality, honesty, and the rule of reason in governance.

• Reign of Terror:

  • Robespierre aimed to eliminate enemies of his vision of the revolution.

  • Continued arrests and executions were carried out by Committees of Public Safety across France.

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• Robespierre's arrest and execution

  • Many felt he was aiming to become a dictator with a police state

  • Arrested by deputies fearing the guillotine

  • Executed along with 80 supporters

• Aftermath of Robespierre's death

  • Release of many prisoners

  • Divisions within the government between Girondins and Jacobins

  • White Terror of 1794–95

  • Closure of Jacobin Club and persecution of Reign of Terror affiliates

• Paris running out of food

  • Mob attacking the Convention for power transfer to local communities

  • Arrest and execution of sans-culottes leaders

  • Proclamation of Louis XVIII as King

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• Questions on the Terror

  • Definition, causes, leaders, victims, perspectives, necessity, implications, consequences, significance, coverage

• Economic problems during the revolution

  • Influence of economy on political events

  • Abolition of feudal dues leading to income loss for landowners

  • Impact on small farmers and industries

  • Nationalization of Church land causing upheaval

  • Inflation due to reliance on assignats

  • Disruption of agriculture by war with Britain

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• Establishment of the Directory

  • Constitution of August 1795 creating a balance of power

  • Structure with Council of Five Hundred and Council of Ancients

  • Selection of five directors

• Aims and rule of the Directory

  • Aimed to restore stability and revolution achievements

  • Directors from the middle class ensuring no return to Ancien Régime abuses

• Challenges faced by the Directory

  • Empty treasury and bankruptcy

  • Resentment towards conscription and rising prices

  • Internal divisions among factions

  • Support from the army to suppress uprisings

• Opposition and survival of the Directory

  • Press freedom allowing expression of extreme views

  • Lack of cooperation among political groups aiding the survival of the Directory

  • Opposition from Jacobins and radicals

  • Support from the army crucial for maintaining power

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• The Directory called on the army to suppress revolts

  • National Guard re-formed to bring under government control

• Babeuf Plot in 1796 to overthrow the Directory

  • Led by Gracchus Babeuf

  • Advocated for vote for all, abolition of private property, equality for all (the plot was foiled and all involved were executed)

• Manifesto of the Equals issued by Jacobin plotters

  • Calls for a new republic, Republic of Equals

  • Emphasizes equality and justice for all

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• Royalists campaign for 1797 elections against the Directory

  • Emphasized poor economy and government failure

• Coup of Fructidor by radical directors to suppress royalists

  • Imposed censorship, removed moderate directors

• Survival of the Directory until 1799 due to various factors

  • Success in wars, territorial gains in Italy

  • Improved economy, sensible taxation, control of food prices

  • Effective local government, punishment for anti-Catholic actions

• Downfall of the Directory in 1799

  • Tactical choices and mistakes led to loss of popularity

  • Coup of Prairial marked the end of the Directory

• Napoleon Bonaparte's background and rise to power

  • Born in Corsica, military success led to political career

  • Directory's downfall paved
    
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