Bio Flashcards
Flashcard #1
Term: Ecology
Definition: The branch of biology that deals with the relationships of organisms to one another and to their physical surroundings.
Flashcard #2
Term: Biochemistry of Life
Definition: The study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms.
Flashcard #3
Term: Cell Structure, Function, & Transport
Definition: The study of the structure and function of cells and the processes that occur within them.
Flashcard #4
Term: Cellular Energy
Definition: The study of how cells produce and use energy.
Flashcard #5
Term: Experimental design
Definition: The process of planning an experiment to ensure that it yields valid and reliable results.
Flashcard #6
Term: Experimental variables
Definition: Factors in an experiment that can be changed or controlled to test the effects on the outcome.
Flashcard #7
Term: Dependent variable
Definition: The variable that is measured in an experiment.
Flashcard #8
Term: Independent variable
Definition: The variable that is changed or controlled in an experiment.
Flashcard #9
Term: Controlled variables (Constants)
Definition: Factors that are kept constant to ensure that the results are valid.
Flashcard #10
Term: Control group vs Controlled variables
Definition: The control group is not exposed to the independent variable, while controlled variables are kept constant.
Flashcard #11
Term: Hypothesis
Definition: A proposed explanation for a phenomenon, which can be tested.
Flashcard #12
Term: Theory
Definition: A broader explanation for a set of related phenomena, supported by a large body of evidence.
Flashcard #13
Term: Law
Definition: A statement that describes an observable phenomenon or a natural occurrence.
Flashcard #14
Term: Emergent properties
Definition: New attributes of a system that arise from the interaction and arrangement of its components.
Flashcard #15
Term: Levels of ecological hierarchy
Definition: The organization of biological systems, ranging from populations to communities to ecosystems.
Flashcard #16
Term: Biotic factors
Definition: Living components of an ecosystem.
Flashcard #17
Term: Abiotic factors
Definition: Non-living components of an ecosystem.
Flashcard #18
Term: Density & dispersion
Definition: How individuals in a population are spaced within an area.
Flashcard #19
Term: Demographics
Definition: Statistical data relating to the population and particular groups within it.
Flashcard #20
Term: Exponential growth
Definition: A growth pattern in which the population size doubles at a constant rate.
Flashcard #21
Term: Logistic growth
Definition: Growth that starts exponentially but slows as the population approaches carrying capacity.
Flashcard #22
Term: Population density
Definition: The number of individuals per unit area.
Flashcard #23
Term: Density-independent factors
Definition: Environmental factors that affect populations regardless of their density.
Flashcard #24
Term: Density-dependent factors
Definition: Factors that affect population growth based on the population density.
Flashcard #25
Term: Population dispersion
Definition: The pattern of spacing among individuals within a population.
Flashcard #26
Term: Uniform dispersion
Definition: A type of population dispersion where individuals are evenly spaced.
Flashcard #27
Term: Random dispersion
Definition: A type of population dispersion where individuals are spread out in an unpredictable way.
Flashcard #28
Term: Clumped dispersion
Definition: A type of population dispersion where individuals are grouped in patches.
Flashcard #29
Term: Carrying capacity (K)
Definition: The maximum population size that an environment can sustain.
Flashcard #30
Term: R vs K selection
Definition: Two reproductive strategies: R-selection favors high reproduction rates, while K-selection favors stable populations.
Flashcard #31
Term: Competitive exclusion principle
Definition: The concept that two species competing for the same resource cannot coexist.
Flashcard #32
Term: Niche
Definition: The role and position a species has in its environment.
Flashcard #33
Term: Commensalism
Definition: A relationship between two organisms where one benefits and the other is unaffected.
Flashcard #34
Term: Mutualism
Definition: A relationship between two organisms where both benefit.
Flashcard #35
Term: Parasitism
Definition: A relationship where one organism benefits at the expense of another.
Flashcard #36
Term: Predation
Definition: The act of one organism capturing and consuming another for food.
Flashcard #37
Term: Competition
Definition: The struggle between organisms for the same resources in a habitat.
Flashcard #38
Term: Trophic levels
Definition: The hierarchical levels in an ecosystem, including producers, consumers, and decomposers.
Flashcard #39
Term: Food chains vs food webs
Definition: Food chains show a linear pathway of energy flow, while food webs display interconnected food chains.
Flashcard #40
Term: Bioaccumulation vs biomagnification
Definition: Bioaccumulation is the buildup of toxins in an organism, while biomagnification refers to the increase in concentration of toxins up the food chain.
Flashcard #41
Term: Primary vs. secondary succession
Definition: Primary succession occurs in lifeless areas, while secondary succession occurs in areas where a disturbance has destroyed a community.
Flashcard #42
Term: Nutrient cycles
Definition: The movement and exchange of organic and inorganic matter back into the production of living matter.
Flashcard #43
Term: Carbon cycle
Definition: The cycle of carbon in the ecosystem, involving processes such as photosynthesis and respiration.
Flashcard #44
Term: Nitrogen cycle
Definition: The series of processes by which nitrogen and its compounds are interconverted in the environment.
Flashcard #45
Term: Phosphorus cycle
Definition: The cycle that describes the movement of phosphorus through the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
Flashcard #46
Term: Water cycle
Definition: The continuous movement of water through the environment via evaporation, condensation, and precipitation.
Flashcard #47
Term: Eutrophic bodies of water
Definition: Water bodies with high nutrient levels, leading to excessive plant growth, while oligotrophic waters are low in nutrients.
Flashcard #48
Term: Element
Definition: A pure substance made up of only one type of atom.
Flashcard #49
Term: Compound
Definition: A substance formed when two or more elements chemically bond together.
Flashcard #50
Term: Neutrons
Definition: Subatomic particles found in the nucleus of an atom, with no charge.
Flashcard #51
Term: Protons
Definition: Positively charged subatomic particles found in the nucleus of an atom.
Flashcard #52
Term: Electrons
Definition: Negatively charged subatomic particles that orbit the nucleus of an atom.
Flashcard #53
Term: Atomic nucleus
Definition: The central part of an atom, containing protons and neutrons.
Flashcard #54
Term: Atomic mass
Definition: The weighted average mass of an element's isotopes.
Flashcard #55
Term: Potential energy
Definition: The energy stored in an object due to its position.
Flashcard #56
Term: Valence electrons
Definition: Electrons in the outermost shell of an atom that are involved in bonding.
Flashcard #57
Term: Chemical bonds
Definition: Forces that hold atoms together in a compound.
Flashcard #58
Term: Electronegativity
Definition: A measure of an atom's ability to attract and hold electrons.
Flashcard #59
Term: Ion
Definition: An atom or molecule that has gained or lost one or more electrons and has a charge.
Flashcard #60
Term: Ionic compounds
Definition: Compounds formed from the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.
Flashcard #61
Term: Polar molecule
Definition: A molecule with a partial positive charge on one end and a partial negative charge on the other.
Flashcard #62
Term: Cohesion
Definition: The attraction between molecules of the same substance.
Flashcard #63
Term: Adhesion
Definition: The attraction between molecules of different substances.
Flashcard #64
Term: Capillary action
Definition: The ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without external forces.
Flashcard #65
Term: Hydrogen bond
Definition: A weak bond between two molecules, resulting from an electrostatic attraction between a proton in one molecule and an electronegative atom in the other.
Flashcard #66
Term: Kinetic energy
Definition: The energy of an object due to its motion.
Flashcard #67
Term: Evaporative cooling
Definition: The process by which the evaporation of a liquid cools the surface from which it evaporates.
Flashcard #68
Term: Specific heat
Definition: The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance.
Flashcard #69
Term: Solvent
Definition: A substance that dissolves a solute, resulting in a solution.
Flashcard #70
Term: Solute
Definition: The substance that is dissolved in a solution.
Flashcard #71
Term: Hydration shell
Definition: The layer of water molecules that surround and interact with a solute.
Flashcard #72
Term: Hydrophilic
Definition: Substances that are attracted to water and can dissolve in it.
Flashcard #73
Term: Hydrophobic
Definition: Substances that repel water and do not dissolve in it.
Flashcard #74
Term: pH
Definition: A measure of how acidic or basic a solution is.
Flashcard #75
Term: Acid
Definition: A substance that increases the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution.
Flashcard #76
Term: Base
Definition: A substance that decreases the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution.
Flashcard #77
Term: Buffer
Definition: A solution that resists changes in pH when acids or bases are added.
Flashcard #78
Term: Molarity
Definition: A measure of the concentration of a solute in a solution.
Flashcard #79
Term: Organic chemistry
Definition: The study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation of carbon-containing compounds.
Flashcard #80
Term: Major elements of life
Definition: The essential elements that make up living organisms, primarily carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur.
Flashcard #81
Term: Hydrocarbons
Definition: Organic compounds consisting exclusively of hydrogen and carbon.
Flashcard #82
Term: Isomers
Definition: Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures.
Flashcard #83
Term: Structural isomers
Definition: Isomers that differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms.
Flashcard #84
Term: Geometric (cis/trans) isomers
Definition: Isomers that differ in the arrangement of groups around a double bond.
Flashcard #85
Term: Enantiomers
Definition: Isomers that are mirror images of each other.
Flashcard #86
Term: Functional groups
Definition: Specific groups of atoms within molecules that are responsible for the characteristic reactions of those molecules.
Flashcard #87
Term: Hydroxyl group
Definition: -OH; a functional group that makes a molecule more polar and water-soluble.
Flashcard #88
Term: Carbonyl group (ketone/aldehyde)
Definition: A functional group consisting of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom.
Flashcard #89
Term: Carboxyl group
Definition: -COOH; a functional group that can act as an acid by donating a hydrogen ion.
Flashcard #90
Term: Amino group
Definition: -NH2; a functional group that acts as a base by picking up a hydrogen ion.
Flashcard #91
Term: Sulfhydryl group
Definition: -SH; a functional group that can stabilize protein structure.
Flashcard #92
Term: Phosphate group
Definition: -PO4; a functional group involved in energy transfer and nucleic acids.
Flashcard #93
Term: Methyl group
Definition: -CH3; a nonpolar functional group that can affect gene expression.
Flashcard #94
Term: ATP
Definition: A high-energy molecule found in every cell; the energy currency of the cell.
Flashcard #95
Term: GTP
Definition: Guanosine triphosphate, an energy source for protein synthesis.
Flashcard #96
Term: Macromolecules
Definition: Large complex molecules, typically consisting of thousands of atoms.
Flashcard #97
Term: Polymer
Definition: A large molecule composed of repeating structural units.
Flashcard #98
Term: Monomer
Definition: A small molecule that can join together with other small molecules to form a polymer.
Flashcard #99
Term: Condensation reaction
Definition: A chemical reaction that combines molecules with the release of a water molecule.
Flashcard #100
Term: Dehydration reaction
Definition: A chemical reaction that involves the loss of a water molecule.
Flashcard #101
Term: Enzymes
Definition: Proteins that act as biological catalysts to speed up chemical reactions.
Flashcard #102
Term: Hydrolysis
Definition: The chemical breakdown of a compound due to reaction with water.
Flashcard #103
Term: Carbohydrates
Definition: Organic compounds that are made up of sugar molecules.
Flashcard #104
Term: Monosaccharide
Definition: The simplest form of carbohydrates; single sugar molecules.
Flashcard #105
Term: Disaccharide
Definition: A carbohydrate consisting of two monosaccharides linked together.
Flashcard #106
Term: Polysaccharide
Definition: Carbohydrates that are made up of more than two monosaccharides.
Flashcard #107
Term: Glycosidic linkage
Definition: The bond formed between two sugar molecules.
Flashcard #108
Term: Aldose
Definition: A type of monosaccharide with an aldehyde group.
Flashcard #109
Term: Ketose
Definition: A type of monosaccharide with a ketone group.
Flashcard #110
Term: Ring structure
Definition: The cyclic form that many monosaccharides take in solution.
Flashcard #111
Term: Starch
Definition: A storage polysaccharide in plants.
Flashcard #112
Term: Glycogen
Definition: A storage polysaccharide in animals.
Flashcard #113
Term: Cellulose
Definition: A structural polysaccharide that makes up the cell wall of plants.
Flashcard #114
Term: Alpha/beta bonds
Definition: The type of glycosidic linkages found in polysaccharides; alpha bonds are digestible by humans, while beta bonds are not.
Flashcard #115
Term: Lipids
Definition: Diverse group of hydrophobic molecules, including fats and oils.
Flashcard #116
Term: Fats
Definition: Lipids that are solid at room temperature.
Flashcard #117
Term: Fatty acid
Definition: A carboxylic acid with a long aliphatic tail.
Flashcard #118
Term: Triacylglycerol
Definition: A lipid formed by esterifying three fatty acids to a glycerol.
Flashcard #119
Term: Saturated fatty acids
Definition: Fatty acids with no double bonds between carbon atoms.
Flashcard #120
Term: Unsaturated fatty acids
Definition: Fatty acids that contain one or more double bonds.
Flashcard #121
Term: Trans fats
Definition: Unsaturated fats that have been hydrogenated to become solid at room temperature.
Flashcard #122
Term: Cis fats
Definition: Unsaturated fats that have a particular spatial configuration.
Flashcard #123
Term: Phospholipids
Definition: Lipids that make up the cell membrane, consisting of two fatty acids and a phosphate group.
Flashcard #124
Term: Steroids
Definition: Lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings.
Flashcard #125
Term: Cholesterol
Definition: A type of steroid that is an essential component of cell membranes.
Flashcard #126
Term: Polypeptides
Definition: Chains of amino acids that make up proteins.
Flashcard #127
Term: Enzymes (again)
Definition: Proteins that speed up chemical reactions.
Flashcard #128
Term: Catalysts
Definition: Substances that increase the rate of a chemical reaction without being consumed.
Flashcard #129
Term: Proteins
Definition: Large biomolecules made up of amino acids that perform many functions in the body.
Flashcard #130
Term: Amino acids
Definition: Building blocks of proteins.
Flashcard #131
Term: Peptide bonds
Definition: The bonds between amino acids in a protein.
Flashcard #132
Term: Levels of protein structure
Definition: The levels of organization that protein chains undergo: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
Flashcard #133
Term: Denaturation
Definition: The process of changing the structure of a protein, often affecting its function.
Flashcard #134
Term: Organelles
Definition: Specialized structures within a cell that perform specific functions.
Flashcard #135
Term: Eukaryotic cells
Definition: Cells with a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
Flashcard #136
Term: Prokaryotic cells
Definition: Simple cells that lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
Flashcard #137
Term: Nucleoid
Definition: The region in a prokaryotic cell where the genetic material is located.
Flashcard #138
Term: Cytoplasm
Definition: The jelly-like substance within a cell that contains organelles.
Flashcard #139
Term: Cytosol
Definition: The fluid component of the cytoplasm.
Flashcard #140
Term: Plasma Membrane
Definition: The membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell, controlling the movement of substances in and out.
Flashcard #141
Term: Nucleus
Definition: The organelle that contains the cell's genetic material.
Flashcard #142
Term: Nuclear envelope
Definition: The double membrane that encloses the nucleus.
Flashcard #143
Term: Nuclear lamina
Definition: A fibrous network inside the nucleus that provides structural support.
Flashcard #144
Term: Chromosomes
Definition: Structures made of DNA that contain genetic information.
Flashcard #145
Term: Chromatin
Definition: The material consisting of DNA and protein found in the nucleus.
Flashcard #146
Term: Nucleolus
Definition: A dense region in the nucleus responsible for ribosome production.
Flashcard #147
Term: Ribosomes
Definition: Structures that synthesize proteins using instructions from the mRNA.
Flashcard #148
Term: Endomembrane system
Definition: A system of membranes in the cell that includes the nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, etc.
Flashcard #149
Term: Vesicles
Definition: Small membrane-bound sacs that transport materials within the cell.
Flashcard #150
Term: Smooth ER
Definition: Endoplasmic reticulum without ribosomes, involved in lipid synthesis.
Flashcard #151
Term: Rough ER
Definition: Endoplasmic reticulum with ribosomes, involved in protein synthesis.
Flashcard #152
Term: Glycoproteins
Definition: Proteins that have carbohydrates attached to them.
Flashcard #153
Term: Transport vesicles
Definition: Vesicles that move materials from one part of the cell to another.
Flashcard #154
Term: Golgi Apparatus
Definition: The organelle that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for transport.
Flashcard #155
Term: Lysosomes
Definition: Membrane-bound organelles that contain digestive enzymes.
Flashcard #156
Term: Phagocytosis
Definition: The process by which cells engulf and digest large particles or other cells.
Flashcard #157
Term: Vacuoles
Definition: Large membrane-bound sacs in cells used for storage.
Flashcard #158
Term: Food vacuoles
Definition: Vacuoles that store food within a cell.
Flashcard #159
Term: Contractile vacuoles
Definition: Vacuoles that help to regulate water balance in a cell.
Flashcard #160
Term: Central vacuoles
Definition: Large vacuoles found in plant cells, important for maintaining turgor pressure.
Flashcard #161
Term: Mitochondria
Definition: Organelles that produce energy through cellular respiration.
Flashcard #162
Term: Cristae
Definition: The folded inner membrane of mitochondria, where energy production occurs.
Flashcard #163
Term: Matrix
Definition: The space within mitochondria that contains enzymes for the citric acid cycle.
Flashcard #164
Term: Chloroplasts
Definition: Organelles found in plant cells where photosynthesis occurs.
Flashcard #165
Term: Plastids
Definition: Organelles involved in the synthesis and storage of food.
Flashcard #166
Term: Thylakoid
Definition: Membrane-bound compartments inside chloroplasts, site of the light reactions of photosynthesis.
Flashcard #167
Term: Grana
Definition: Stacked structures of thylakoids within the chloroplasts.
Flashcard #168
Term: Stroma
Definition: The fluid-filled space outside the thylakoids in chloroplasts.
Flashcard #169
Term: Peroxisome
Definition: Organelles that detoxify harmful substances and metabolize fatty acids.
Flashcard #170
Term: Cytoskeleton
Definition: A network of fibers that provides structural support for the cell.
Flashcard #171
Term: Motor proteins
Definition: Proteins that facilitate movement within cells by interacting with the cytoskeleton.
Flashcard #172
Term: Microtubules
Definition: The thickest fibers of the cytoskeleton that help maintain cell shape and facilitate cell division.
Flashcard #173
Term: Centrosome, Centriole
Definition: Structures that organize microtubules and are important for cell division.
Flashcard #174
Term: Flagella vs. Cilia
Definition: Flagella are long, whip-like structures used for movement, while cilia are shorter, hair-like structures that move fluid across cell surfaces.
Flashcard #175
Term: Microfilaments
Definition: The thinnest fibers of the cytoskeleton, involved in cell movement and shape.
Flashcard #176
Term: Intermediate filaments
Definition: Fibers that provide structural support and resilience to cells.
Flashcard #177
Term: Cell Wall
Definition: A rigid outer layer found in plant cells, providing support and protection.
Flashcard #178
Term: Extracellular Matrix
Definition: A network of proteins and carbohydrates outside the cell, supporting cells and facilitating communication.
Flashcard #179
Term: Selective permeability
Definition: The property of cellular membranes that allows them to regulate the passage of substances.
Flashcard #180
Term: Amphipathic
Definition: Molecules that have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts.
Flashcard #181
Term: Fluid Mosaic Model
Definition: A model of cell membrane structure depicting a flexible bilayer of phospholipids with embedded proteins.
Flashcard #182
Term: Integral proteins
Definition: Proteins that span the entire membrane and are involved in transport and communication.
Flashcard #183
Term: Peripheral proteins
Definition: Proteins that are attached to the surface of the membrane but do not penetrate it.
Flashcard #184
Term: Transport proteins
Definition: Proteins that facilitate the movement of molecules across the cell membrane.
Flashcard #185
Term: Enzymatic activity
Definition: The act of enzymes catalyzing biochemical reactions on the membrane.
Flashcard #186
Term: Aquaporins
Definition: Channel proteins that facilitate the movement of water across cell membranes.
Flashcard #187
Term: Facilitated diffusion
Definition: The process of passive transport of molecules across the plasma membrane via a protein channel.
Flashcard #188
Term: Osmosis
Definition: The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
Flashcard #189
Term: Diffusion
Definition: The passive movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
Flashcard #190
Term: Glycoproteins (again)
Definition: Proteins with carbohydrate groups attached, playing roles in cell recognition and signaling.
Flashcard #191
Term: Glycolipids
Definition: Lipids with carbohydrate groups attached, contributing to cell recognition.
Flashcard #192
Term: Proton pump
Definition: A transport protein that moves protons across a membrane against their concentration gradient.
Flashcard #193
Term: Concentration Gradient
Definition: A difference in the concentration of a substance across a space.
Flashcard #194
Term: Isotonic
Definition: A solution with the same solute concentration as another solution.
Flashcard #195
Term: Hypotonic
Definition: A solution with a lower solute concentration than another solution.
Flashcard #196
Term: Hypertonic
Definition: A solution with a higher solute concentration than another solution.
Flashcard #197
Term: Active transport
Definition: The movement of molecules across a membrane using energy, against their concentration gradient.
Flashcard #198
Term: Passive transport
Definition: The movement of molecules across a membrane without the use of energy.
Flashcard #199
Term: Carrier proteins
Definition: Proteins that bind to specific molecules and change shape to transport them across the membrane.
Flashcard #200
Term: Channel proteins
Definition: Proteins that provide passages for molecules to cross the membrane.
Flashcard #201
Term: Endocytosis
Definition: The process by which a cell takes in materials by engulfing them.
Flashcard #202
Term: Exocytosis
Definition: The process by which cells export materials in vesicles.
Flashcard #203
Term: Phagocytosis (again)
Definition: The process of engulfing large particles by a cell.
Flashcard #204
Term: Pinocytosis
Definition: The process of a cell taking in liquid from the surrounding environment.
Flashcard #205
Term: Plasmolysis
Definition: The process of the cell membrane pulling away from the cell wall due to loss of water.
Flashcard #206
Term: Cytolysis
Definition: The bursting of a cell due to an influx of water.
Flashcard #207
Term: Turgor
Definition: The pressure of water inside the cell that keeps it rigid.
Flashcard #208
Term: Water potential
Definition: The potential energy of water in a system, driving water movement.
Flashcard #209
Term: Metabolism
Definition: The sum of all chemical reactions that occur within a living organism.
Flashcard #210
Term: Metabolic pathway
Definition: A series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell.
Flashcard #211
Term: Catabolic pathway
Definition: Metabolic pathways that break down molecules into smaller units, releasing energy.
Flashcard #212
Term: Anabolic pathway
Definition: Metabolic pathways that build larger molecules from smaller units, consuming energy.
Flashcard #213
Term: Energy
Definition: The capacity to do work or produce change.
Flashcard #214
Term: Kinetic energy (again)
Definition: Energy associated with motion.
Flashcard #215
Term: Thermal/heat energy
Definition: Energy associated with the temperature of an object.
Flashcard #216
Term: Potential energy (again)
Definition: Energy stored in an object due to its position.
Flashcard #217
Term: Chemical energy
Definition: Energy stored in the bonds of chemical compounds.
Flashcard #218
Term: Thermodynamics
Definition: The study of energy transformation and the laws governing them.
Flashcard #219
Term: The first law of thermodynamics
Definition: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed.
Flashcard #220
Term: Principle of conservation of energy
Definition: Energy is conserved in isolated systems.
Flashcard #221
Term: Entropy
Definition: A measure of disorder; in a closed system, entropy tends to increase.
Flashcard #222
Term: Second law of thermodynamics
Definition: Energy transfer increases the entropy of a system.
Flashcard #223
Term: Exergonic reaction
Definition: A reaction that releases energy.
Flashcard #224
Term: Endergonic reaction
Definition: A reaction that absorbs energy.
Flashcard #225
Term: Energy coupling
Definition: The process of using energy released from one reaction to drive another.
Flashcard #226
Term: Chemical work
Definition: The energy used to synthesize cellular components.
Flashcard #227
Term: Transport work
Definition: Energy used for the transport of molecules across membranes.
Flashcard #228
Term: Mechanical work
Definition: Energy used for movement within the cell.
Flashcard #229
Term: ATP (again)
Definition: A molecule used to store and transfer energy within cells.
Flashcard #230
Term: Phosphorylated
Definition: The process of adding a phosphate group to a molecule.
Flashcard #231
Term: Enzyme (again)
Definition: A protein that catalyzes biochemical reactions.
Flashcard #232
Term: Catalyst (again)
Definition: A substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being consumed.
Flashcard #233
Term: Activation energy
Definition: The energy required to initiate a chemical reaction.
Flashcard #234
Term: Transition state
Definition: The state of highest energy during a reaction.
Flashcard #235
Term: Substrate
Definition: The reactant on which an enzyme works.
Flashcard #236
Term: Enzyme-substrate complex
Definition: The transient complex formed when an enzyme binds to its substrate.
Flashcard #237
Term: Induced fit
Definition: The model of enzyme action that describes how enzyme changes shape to fit the substrate.
Flashcard #238
Term: Optimal conditions
Definition: The best conditions (pH, temp, salinity) for enzyme function.
Flashcard #239
Term: Cofactors
Definition: Non-protein molecules that assist enzymes in catalyzing reactions.
Flashcard #240
Term: Coenzymes
Definition: Organic cofactors that assist enzymes.
Flashcard #241
Term: Competitive inhibitors
Definition: Substances that compete with the substrate for the active site of an enzyme.
Flashcard #242
Term: Noncompetitive inhibitors
Definition: Substances that bind to an enzyme at a location other than the active site, changing its shape.
Flashcard #243
Term: Allosteric regulation
Definition: Regulation of enzyme activity by binding at a site other than the active site.
Flashcard #244
Term: Activator
Definition: A molecule that increases enzyme activity.
Flashcard #245
Term: Inhibitor (again)
Definition: A molecule that decreases enzyme activity.
Flashcard #246
Term: Feedback inhibition
Definition: A process in which the end product of a metabolic pathway inhibits an earlier step.
Flashcard #247
Term: Fermentation
Definition: A metabolic process that converts sugar to acids, gases, or alcohol in the absence of oxygen.
Flashcard #248
Term: Aerobic respiration
Definition: Respiration that requires oxygen.
Flashcard #249
Term: Anaerobic respiration
Definition: Respiration that occurs without oxygen.
Flashcard #250
Term: Structure of the mitochondria
Definition: Mitochondria have a double membrane, with an inner membrane folded into cristae.
Flashcard #251
Term: Cellular respiration
Definition: The process of converting glucose into energy in the form of ATP.
Flashcard #252
Term: Organic compounds + oxygen --> carbon dioxide + water + energy
Definition: The overall equation for cellular respiration.
Flashcard #253
Term: Redox reaction
Definition: A reaction involving the transfer of electrons between two species.
Flashcard #254
Term: Oxidation
Definition: The loss of electrons during a chemical reaction.
Flashcard #255
Term: Reduction
Definition: The gain of electrons during a chemical reaction.
Flashcard #256
Term: NAD+ vs NADH
Definition: NAD+ is the oxidized form, while NADH is the reduced form transporting electrons.
Flashcard #257
Term: Electron transport chain
Definition: A series of protein complexes that transfer electrons to create ATP.
Flashcard #258
Term: Oxidative phosphorylation
Definition: The process of ATP generation through the electron transport chain in mitochondria.
Flashcard #259
Term: Glycolysis
Definition: The breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, yielding ATP.
Flashcard #260
Term: G3P (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate)
Definition: An intermediate in the glycolytic pathway.
Flashcard #261
Term: Pyruvate
Definition: The end product of glycolysis, which can enter the citric acid cycle.
Flashcard #262
Term: Acetyl CoA
Definition: A key metabolic intermediate in the citric acid cycle.
Flashcard #263
Term: Citric acid cycle
Definition: A series of enzymatic reactions that generate ATP and electron carriers.
Flashcard #264
Term: ATP synthase
Definition: An enzyme that produces ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
Flashcard #265
Term: Chemiosmosis
Definition: The movement of ions across a semipermeable membrane, generating ATP.
Flashcard #266
Term: Hydrolysis (again)
Definition: The chemical breakdown of a compound due to reaction with water.
Flashcard #267
Term: Synthesis
Definition: The process of combining smaller molecules to form a larger one.
Flashcard #268
Term: Alcohol fermentation
Definition: The process of converting sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide.
Flashcard #269
Term: Lactic acid fermentation
Definition: The process of converting sugars into lactic acid.
Flashcard #270
Term: Obligate anaerobes
Definition: Organisms that cannot survive in the presence of oxygen.
Flashcard #271
Term: Facultative anaerobes
Definition: Organisms that can survive with or without oxygen.
Flashcard #272
Term: Photosynthesis
Definition: The process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods from carbon dioxide and water.
Flashcard #273
Term: Autotrophs
Definition: Organisms that produce their own food through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.
Flashcard #274
Term: Heterotrophs
Definition: Organisms that cannot produce their own food and depend on other sources.
Flashcard #275
Term: Chlorophyll
Definition: A green pigment found in plants that absorbs light energy for photosynthesis.
Flashcard #276
Term: Mesophyll
Definition: The inner tissue of a leaf where photosynthesis occurs.
Flashcard #277
Term: Stomata (stomates)
Definition: Small openings on the surface of leaves allowing gas exchange.
Flashcard #278
Term: Stroma (in chloroplasts)
Definition: The fluid-filled space surrounding thylakoids in chloroplasts.
Flashcard #279
Term: Thylakoids
Definition: Membrane-bound structures within chloroplasts where light reactions occur.
Flashcard #280
Term: Light reactions
Definition: The first stage of photosynthesis that converts solar energy to chemical energy.
Flashcard #281
Term: Calvin cycle
Definition: The second stage of photosynthesis that converts carbon dioxide into glucose.
Flashcard #282
Term: NADP+
Definition: An electron carrier involved in the light reactions of photosynthesis.
Flashcard #283
Term: Photophosphorylation
Definition: The process of adding a phosphate group to ADP to form ATP using light energy.
Flashcard #284
Term: Carbon fixation
Definition: The process of converting inorganic carbon (CO2) into organic compounds.
Flashcard #285
Term: Wavelength
Definition: The distance between successive peaks of a wave, important in photosynthesis.
Flashcard #286
Term: Electromagnetic spectrum
Definition: The range of all types of electromagnetic radiation.
Flashcard #287
Term: Visible light
Definition: The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human eye.
Flashcard #288
Term: Photons
Definition: Particles of light that carry energy.
Flashcard #289
Term: Spectrophotometer
Definition: An instrument that measures the amount of light absorbed by a sample.
Flashcard #290
Term: Absorption spectrum
Definition: A spectrum of absorbed light showing which wavelengths are absorbed by a substance.
Flashcard #291
Term: Chlorophyll a
Definition: The main pigment involved in photosynthesis.
Flashcard #292
Term: Engelmann's experiment
Definition: An experiment demonstrating that chlorophyll absorbs light more effectively in certain wavelengths.
Flashcard #293
Term: Chlorophyll b
Definition: A pigment in chloroplasts that assists chlorophyll a in capturing light energy.
Flashcard #294
Term: Carotenoids
Definition: Accessory pigments that capture light energy and protect chlorophyll from damage.
Flashcard #295
Term: Light Reaction vs. Calvin Cycle
Definition: Light reactions convert solar energy into chemical energy, while the Calvin cycle uses that energy to fix carbon and synthesize glucose.
Flashcard #296
Term: Compare chemiosmosis in mitochondrion vs in chloroplast
Definition: Both processes involve ATP synthase and proton gradients, but occur in different organelles.
Flashcard #297
Term: Proton H+ gradient
Definition: A difference in proton concentration across a membrane, driving ATP synthesis.
Flashcard #298
Term: ATP synthase (again)
Definition: An enzyme that produces ATP during chemiosmosis.
Flashcard #299
Term: Electron Transport chain (again)
Definition: A sequence of electron carriers that transfer electrons and create a proton gradient.
Flashcard #300
Term: Stroma (again)
Definition: The fluid matrix in chloroplasts where the Calvin cycle takes place.
Flashcard #301
Term: Thylakoid (again)
Definition: The membrane-bound structures in chloroplasts where light reactions occur.
Flashcard #302
Term: ATP, ADP (again)
Definition: ATP is the energy currency of the cell while ADP is its lower-energy form.
Flashcard #303
Term: NADP+, NADPH
Definition: NADP+ is the oxidized form and NADPH is the reduced form that carries electrons in photosynthesis.
Flashcard #304
Term: C3 plants
Definition: Plants that use the Calvin cycle to fix carbon, which occurs in mesophyll cells.
Flashcard #305
Term: C4 plants
Definition: Plants that minimize photorespiration by separating carbon fixation from the Calvin cycle.
Flashcard #306
Term: CAM plants
Definition: Plants that fix carbon at night, reducing water loss.
Flashcard #307
Term: Adaptions to increase surface area while minimizing volume
Definition: Strategies organisms use to maximize their surface area relative to their volume for efficiency.
Flashcard #308
Term: Homeoviscous adaptation of the membrane vs. Cholesterol in animals
Definition: Adaptations organisms have to maintain membrane fluidity under varying temperatures.
Flashcard #309
Term: Gram-negative & Gram-positive bacteria
Definition: Bacterial classifications based on their cell wall composition and response to Gram staining.
Flashcard #310
Term: C3, C4, and CAM Plants
Definition: Different photosynthetic pathways that plants use to fix carbon dioxide.
Flashcard #311
Term: Symbiotic relationships
Definition: Interactions between different species that benefit at least one of the parties.
Flashcard #312
Term: Ectotherms vs Endotherms
Definition: Ectotherms rely on external temperature for body heat
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