AP Euro Summary of all 400 pages. Good Luck!

Late Middle Ages: Everyone is Suffering

• This period is NOT on the AP Test, so review it lightly.

Mini Ice Age / Great Famine (1300-1322)

• Location: All of Europe
• Europe's climate became colder and wetter, with more storms.
• The Great Famine starved many, leading to wandering workers and criminals.
• Increased violence occurred between Christian and Jewish communities.

Black Death (1346-1353)

• Location: All of Europe
• Spread from Asia along trade routes and was worsened by poor hygiene and famine.
• Treatments involved religion, herbs, and quarantine.
• Extended Effects on Society:
  • Significant population drop (approximately ½ of Europe's population).
  • Workers demanded higher wages.
  • Rise of flagellants.
  • Increased Jewish hatred.
  • Macabre art style expressing depression.
  • More universities founded to address the decline in learning.

Hundred Years War (1337-1453)

• Location: England and France
• Succession dispute over the French throne.
  • Initially, French were losing until Joan of Arc appeared, shifting the tides.
  • Charles VII crowned king.
  • Joan of Arc executed.
  • England retained only Calais.
• After Effects of the War:
  • Heavy financial costs and disrupted trade for both countries.
  • Joan of Arc became a religious symbol.
  • Stimulated the development of the English Parliament.
  • Growth in French and English nationalism.

Babylonian Captivity & Great Schism (1309-1376)

• Location: Italy/France
• Popes resided in Avignon, France, leading to two simultaneous popes.
• Caused the Great Schism, dividing Europe on papal allegiance.
• Increased criticism against the papacy.

New Ideas about the Church (~1300-1400)

• Location: All of Europe
• Ideas:
  • Marsiglio: Government should rule, and the church should be subordinate.
  • John Wyclif: Scriptures should be the standard of Christian belief.
  • Jan Hus: Supported Wyclif and spread bible translations.
• Rebuttal from the Church:
  • Council met at Constance to wipe out heresy, end the Schism, and reform the church.
  • The church succeeded in the first two objectives, but never reformed.

Lay Piety (~1300-1400)

• Location: All of Europe
• Confraternities formed for faith expression.
• Brethren and Sisters of the Common Life lived simply and spread the Gospel.
• Mystical experiences increased.

Peasant Revolts (1322-1381)

• Location: France and England
• France:
  • Peasants revolted against taxes and priests in present-day Belgium but were crushed.
  • In 1358, French revolted due to taxation over the 100 Years’ War resulting in mass destruction, crushed by nobility (Jacquerie).
• England:
  • The Statute of Laborers (1351) froze wages and bound peasants to manors.
  • Growing taxation from the 100 Years’ War led to opposition.
  • The English Peasants’ Revolt (1381) ended due to Richard II's deception.

Urban Conflict (Undefined)

• Location: All of Europe
• Investors bought households, and production focused on one step of the product's creation.
• Capitalism restricted new people from entering guilds and the market.
• Women were excluded from guilds due to sexism.

Sex and Prostitution (Undefined)

• Location: All of Europe
• Women managed households, and men were older than women.
• Prostitution became supervised and social.
• Prostitutes were considered unhonorable, and rape victims tried to salvage their reputation rather than punish the rapist.
• Same-sex relations were disliked, but men were usually fine as long as they weren’t the bottom, and women were fine most of the time.

Fur Collar Crime (Undefined)

• Location: All of Europe
• Nobles turned to crime to maintain their lifestyle.
• Bandits stole from others and gave it to the nobility.
• Criminals tried to prove their innocence when accused, leading to stories like Robin Hood.

Ethnic Tensions and Relations (Undefined)

• Location: All of Europe
• English discriminated against the Irish.
• Emphasis on blood descent arose to maintain blood purity.
• The Statute of Kilkenny prevented English from marrying outsiders.
• Concepts of French/English blood and noble/peasant blood emerged.

Literacy (1310-1320 & 1387-1400)

• Location: Italy and England
• Dante Alighieri wrote the Divine Comedy.
• Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales portrayed English life.
• England had a rise in schools, and general literacy improved.

Renaissance: Let's Get Cultured

• The Renaissance was a movement in history, and each country experienced it at different times.

Prosperity in Trade (~1300-1400)

• Location: Italian Peninsula
• Venice, Genoa, and Milan became overseas trade figures through the merchant marine force.
• Florence prospered due to location on the road North of Rome.
• Banking families of Florence powered the city's politics and culture.
• The thriving Italian cities allowed their citizens to experience greater material pleasures and comfortable lives.

Communes and Republics (~1300-1400)

• Location: Italian Peninsula
• Northern cities of Italy were communes of free merchants led by guilds seeking independence from nobles leading to an oligarchy.
• The popolo (common folk) detested heavy taxation and lack of political power.
• Merchant oligarchies established power through the condottieri.
• Other cities became Signori, which were ruled by one man.
• Court Culture
  • Merchant oligarchies transformed their households into courts and developed a culture around them.
  • Magnificent palaces and extravagant rituals became the norm.

Italian Balance of Power (1434-1737)

• Location: Italian Peninsula
• Italian Peninsula Balance / Events
  • Five major powers (Venice, Milan, Florence, Papal States, Naples) controlled their lands and smaller states.
  • Italian states teamed up to push down a stronger state to maintain balance.
  • This system made Italy relatively weaker than other European states.
• Notable Figures
  • The Medici family effectively ruled Florence for around 3 centuries.
  • Savonarola led the people and was against sin, but was excommunicated and killed by the pope.

The Rise of Humanism (~1300-1400)

• Location: All of Europe
• Petrarch obsessing about the classical past.
• Humanists going to the works of Plato.
• Classical texts supporting hierarchy were declared heresy and put down by the Church.
• People gained virtu.

Rise of Education (~1400-1500)

• Location: Italy
• Humanists promoted education for the next generation.
• Humanist education became the norm, excluding the very beginnings of education.
• Women were excluded from the humanist teachings.
• The Courtier by Baldassare Castiglione taught everyone to be multi-talented, but what you should be talented in depends on your gender.

Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527)

• Location: Italy
• Niccolo Machiavelli wrote The Prince.
• If a king cannot be loved, then it is better for him to be feared, and the ends should justify the means.
• Rulers shouldn’t be judged by the morality that God has, but rather the effectiveness of his rule.
• Machiavelli defined the methods of ruling, and his ideas would remain strong. His writing might have also been sarcastic

Christian Humanists (~1475-1525)

• Location: All of Europe
• Combining the ideals of humanism and Christian faith
• Thomas Moore wrote Utopia, a writing that detailed a paradise that was perfect that wouldn’t allow for disagreement.
• Desiderius Erasmus attempting to guide a ruler through the Bible in his writing of The Education of a Christian Prince.
• Emphasis on the personal morality rather than outward observation of rites

Printing Power (1440-1455)

• Location: All of Europe
• Woodblock printing technique invented in the 1440s
• Gutenberg's optimization of printing press allowed for the mass production of written pieces
• The printing press stimulated the populace to learn how to read, and literacy generally improved.

Artistic Change (~1400-1599)

• Location: Italy
• Patronage change showed how society changed from being purely war, to now being powered by luxuries and new ways to show off.
• Art began to show the human ideals, and became more realistic.
• Mannerism focused on distorted figures, exaggeration and heightened colors.

Renaissance Artist (~1500)

• Location: Italy
• Renaissance artists began to think that their art makes them geniuses.
• Some workshops copied drawings and paintings.
• Renaissance artists were sexist towards women and believed that women can’t be good artists.
• While some women could create art, they were never given the same chances that men had.

Race and Slavery (~1400-1500)

• Location: All of Europe
• The people back then were able to distinguish the differences in skin color.
• Black people were brought from Africa and slavery expanded, and black servants were a sign of wealth.
• African slaves would work in virtually all occupations, but were not often used in agriculture. Preconceptions about Africans developed because of slave trading

Wealth and Nobility (Undefined)

• Location: All of Europe
• Wealthy merchants would buy their way into nobility, and the previous nobility would integrate the merchants in.
• The more wealth one had, the more they had to follow honor, and vice versa.

Gender Roles (Undefined)

• Location: All of Europe
• Women were critiqued as being devious, domineering, and demanding.
• Female rulers would rise, but emphasized male qualities rather than female ones.
• Unmarried men were lower than their married counterparts, and women were seen as married or waiting to be married.
• Women who had jobs usually earned ⅔ of the wage of their male coworkers.

France Status Check (1453-1516)

• Location: France
• French soldiers pushed out of England.
• Charles gave influence to lawyers and bankers and strengthened royal finances through more taxes.
• France created the first permanent royal army in Europe.
• Louis XII’s marriage with Anne of Brittany added Brittany to France.
• Concordat of Bologna made it possible for France to name their own bishops and abbots.

England Status Check (1455-1509)

• Location: England
• 1455-1471 experienced the Wars of the Roses, ending with Henry VI’s rule.
• Edward IV conducted foreign policy based on diplomacy, allowing the monarchy to be not dependent on Parliament for money.
• Henry VII would choose people not from the nobility for his council, but rather smaller folk.
• The Court of Star Chamber would handle aristocratic threats through rather brutal methods.

Spain Status Check (1469-1580)

• Location: Iberian Peninsula
• Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon’s marriage didn’t bring about unity until they reduced the aristocracy's power.
• Jewish people would have to convert or be kicked out of Spain.
• Jewish people, however, were never truly accepted as true Christians due to their bloodline.
• Philip II joined Portugal to the Spanish crown in 1580, unifying the Iberian Peninsula.

Reformation: No, MY Religion is Best!

Christian Church Status (~1500-1599)

• Location: All of Europe
• Reputation damaged by Babylonian Captivity, Great Schism, patronage of popes, and building of family power.
• Anticlericalism had 3 main problems with the church, clerical immorality, ignorance, and pluralism.
• Clerics would take all the benefits of the position but wouldn’t serve in the place they were assigned to.
• Priests, monks, and nuns were excluded from all civic responsibilities but had a lot of property, leading to resentment.

Martin Luther (1483-1546)

• Location: Holy Roman Empire
• Luther believed man was constantly sinning.
• Faith is the only way one can get to Heaven (Lutherans).
• Greatly against the indulgences that the Church was selling at the time.
• Luther would end up debating with the Catholic Church, and was forced to refuse by the church.

Protestantism (~1500-1600)

• Location: Holy Roman Empire
• Ideas:
  • Zwingli believed that the true Christian life is only based on the Scriptures.
  • The term Protestant was coined during this time.
  • Most Protestants believed that faith was the only way to go, the bible is the only true authority, and that all people are equal in holiness
• Public Response:
  • Return to scripture appealed to Christians.
  • Townspeople disliked the Church’s wealth.
  • Luther’s ideas spread well due to the printing press and helped define the German language.
  • A territory became Protestant when the leader brought in a reformer.

Radicals and Peasants (~1520-1525)

• Location: Germany
• Anabaptists:
  • Believed that babies shouldn’t be baptized when they are born, but rather when they become adults, and were met with hatred.
• German Peasents’ War:
  • Peasants made demands against the nobility due to crop failures.
  • Luther initially supported the peasants but then switched sides.
  • Peasants moved on to revolt but were crushed by the noble power.

Women in relation to Protestantism (~1500-1600)

• Location: All of Europe
• Marriage was the spiritual ideal state, even though marriage wasn’t a sacrament
• Wives of priests were expected to be the ideal wife, and still followed the belief that women needed to be subject to men, though Protestants allowed for divorces.
• There were some convents for women, and they provided an outlet for talents if women did not marry.

Rise of Habsburgs (1452-1477)

• Location: Holy Roman Empire
• Marriage between Frederick III and Eleonore of Portugal gained him territory and money.
• Maximilian’s marriage with Mary of Burgundy acquired the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and the County of Burgundy.
• Maximilian’s kids were married to the children of the rulers of Spain.
• Charles V felt the need to maintain the political and religious unity of Western Christendom.

Religious Wars (~1520-1556)

• Location: Holy Roman Empire and Switzerland
• The ruler of a territory determined the official religion of the territory.
• Germanic areas were divided.
• Charles V and the Protestant leaders fought, until a treaty was signed in 1531 that allowed for each territory to determine their own religion.
• Charles V didn’t truly accept the treaty, and Charles V would demand that the Protestant states return to Catholicism
• Protestant states retaliated with a military alliance and warfare in 1546, until the end with the Peace of Augsburg in 1555.
• The Peace of Augsburg recognized Lutheranism, and end to religious war in Germany for a couple decades and religious refugees were a very common feature on roads.

Scandinavia Status Check (~1530s)

• Location: Scandinavia
• Denmark had Lutheran ideas brought in rather quickly.
• Norway and Iceland Lutheranism not well brought in.
• Protestant ideas spread through Sweden well, but the Swedish church didn’t official accept the ideas until later on.

Henry VIII (1509-1547)

• Location: England
• Henry VIII married his brother’s widow and originally got approval from the Pope, but then created Anglican Church to divorce and put himself at the head of power, which remained mostly the same as Catholic Church.
• Cromwell would bring greater efficiency in government plans and economy.
• Some people accepted, and others not so much, especially the Irish, who remained Roman Catholics.

Maintaining Protestantism in England (1547-1603)

• Location: England
• Edward VI bringing more Protestantism to England.
• Mary Tudor would do the exact opposite.
• Elizabeth I would then bring back Protestantism, and practice some temperance between the Catholics and Protestants that allowed for the people to decide what they want to practice as long as they keep it in their private lives.
• Anglican church remained being hierarchical and elaborate like the Catholic Church.
• Philip II would try to attack England for not being Catholic with a marriage with Mary Tudor, but would end up failing, causing the failure of the Spanish Armada.

Calvinism (~1530-1560)

• Location: France
• John Calvin: God is absolute and has infinite power, and therefore already knows where you are going after death
• Calvinism: to work hard and prove that they were elected by God to go to heaven, popular among the rich elite, being less lavish, disliked in France, and accepted in Scotland

Eastern Europe Status Check (~1500-1600)

• Location: Eastern Europe
• Czechs had adopted the ideas of Jan Hus and brought about the Hussite Church.
• Luther’s ideas remained strong in the German populated areas, but places like Poland remained staunchly Roman Catholic due to the works of the Jesuits.
• Lutheranism would spread into Hungary, but Hungary executed all Protestants.
• The Turks would be indifferent to the religious conflicts of Christians, and remain mostly the same.
• Hungarians became Protestant later on when Hungary was split up by Suleiman the Magnificent

Papal Reform (~1542-1563)

• Location: Italy
• Pope Paul III would try to improve the Catholic church.
• Pope Paul would bring about the Holy Office in order to control Roman Inquisition which was charged to execute suspected heretics.
• Pope Paul III also brought about the Council of Trent, a group that reformed the Catholic Church and resolve conflicts with the Protestants, but they never solved conflicts with the Protestants.
• Trent: Marriage needed to be witnessed by a priest in order to be valid
• The papacy didn’t solve all the issues, but solved the problems of the Church and brought about a new dawn for the Roman Catholic faith.

Religious Orders (~1500-1600)

• Location: All of Europe
• Carmelites and Ursuline revived for education or faith.
• Jesuits strengthened the faith of God all around the world through campaigns.

French Wars of Religion (~1520-1598)

• Location: France
• The French would stay Catholic due to the Concordat of Bologna
• French Huguenots were being against the mostly Catholic French populace, leading to some conflict.
• The nobles would take advantage of the weakness of the French crown by becoming Protestant to try and regain their independence.
• In the savage Catholic attack on Calvinists in the Saint Bartholomew’s Day massacre would cause a major war in France, with ended with Henry of Navarre becoming the next King.
• The Edict of Nantes would resolve the issues of religious division in France.

Netherland Status Check (1556-1581)

• Location: Netherlands
• Charles V, transferred the territory to Philip II
• Calvinists, violence from France, Destruction and Civil War, ended in Peace of Utrecht, dividing the country, but stopped by Spain in 1609

Witchcraft (~1480-1660)

• Location: All of Europe
• Religious persecution over being a witch began to increase, so people were being persecuted.
• The perception of witches would begin to be seen as, essentially the opposites of Catholics and doing everything that the Catholics hated.
• Women were the biggest victims, women would commonly accuse each other to secure their own position in communities.
• Making it just a witch panic. As people gave up on the idea of witches, then they stopped using it, and witch hunting stopped.

Age of Exploration: God, Glory, Gold

World Trading so far (~1450-1650)

• Location: Indian Ocean and Africa
• Indian Ocean: Trade winds, merchants in cities/no states, China, India
• Africa: Cairo/East cities, Gold from western Sudan, Gold, and Slaves

More World Trading (~1450-1650)

• Location: Middle East and Italy
• Middle East: Muslim Arab traders, Persian Safavids/Turkish Ottoman after Abbasid, Ottoman controlled the oceanic trade in the Mediterranean
• Genoa and Venice: Black Sea to Cairo

Causes of European Expansion (~1400-1500)

• Location: Spain and Portugal
• Both wanted to find new paths to Asia to control the Spice Trade, and Spread Religion (Reconquista), Conquistadors wanted rewards and glory of exploring the world

Technological Advance (~1400-1500)

• Location: Scattered Parts of the World
• Caravel, Ptolemy's Geography, Compas, Gunpowder, Sternpost

First Parts of Exploration (~1400-1500)

• Location: Portugal and Spain
• Settlements in North Africa, control Africa Gold, seek quick and easy profits, military take trading forts, and trading around the cape of Africa
• Support, Caribbean as Asia, fail, set up more trade

Reactions to America (~1494-1580)

• Location: Spain and Northern Europe
• Spain: Vesopucci, Treaty, Magellan, disaster, worldview expands
• Northern Europe: route to India, worthless, silver and gold, furs

Conquest and Bloodshed (~1519-1570)

• Location: Aztecs and Incas
• Aztecs: Internal conflict, Spanish took, military force, diseases, downfall
• Incas: Peaceful to violence to downfall

Brazil and Portugal (~1500-1550)

• Location: Brazil
• Portugal: Camp, trade, trade with indigenous/enslaved, slaves from African

Colonial Empires of England and France (~1600)

• Location: North America
• North America: Jamestown tobacco, Indentured replaced by slavery, mostly coastline (compare to Spain)

Administration of Colonies (~1500-1550)

• Location: Portuguese and Spanish Colonies
• Portugal and Spain: Casa and Land from noble to land and administer, Spain had cities, local author, Spain rely on the government and England more independent

Economic Exploitation (~1512-1540

• Location: Spanish Colonies
• Spanish: Ecomienda to New laws (Free if Convert), to Government forced Native, to Haciendas lead to death

Society in Colonies (Undefined)

• Location: Colonies
• Women : European languages, religions, sexual relations, and captive African, which create some mixed but some not and depend on where they stay at

Columbian Exchange and Slavery (~1500-1600)

• Location: Colonies and the Oceans
• Columbian Exchange: Europe went around to increase profits, food and luxuries as well as diseases, kill Natives
• Slavery: Slave through Africa Leader, Sugar and Workers, more Slave

Spanish Silver and the Global Economy (1545-1621)

• Location: Spanish and Portuguese territories
• The inflow of silver from colonies only worsened the inflation that was dealing with for Spain ,which caused the nobility to suffer, the middle class to profit, and the poor to take the brunt of the impact of the inflationPortugal acted through main to control world trade, China Japan

Religious Conversion (~1530)

• Location: Americas
• The Jesuits venture to the New World to convert more people and destroy old beliefs with Christian

Thoughts of Race and Indigenous Peoples (~1492-1700)

• Location: Undefined
• Indigenous People: Rational, Abuses to the people were not justified
• Ideas of Race: Divided convert, Bloodline, Amount from EU countries

New Writing (~1533-1625)

• Location: France and England
• Michel de Montaigne: Religious Conflict and Cultural relativism do not accepts one culture to be superior to another to challenge The ideas of superiority
• William Shakespeare: Play to express racial and religious classification as well the suffer for patriarchy

Political Revolution: Crown or Constitution

Social Order (~1600s)

• Location: All of Europe
• The societies of Europe were hierarchical in nature, with the nobles on top and the peasants on the bottom.
• Society was also patriarchal as well, with men taking the leading role of the family most of the time.
• The towns of Europe were also hierarchical, and the people with land employed the landless poor to work for them

Economic Crisis and Revolt (~1600s)

• Location: All of Europe
• Due to the rather poor agricultural technology and the low crop yields, all of Europe was dealing with their peasants barely fending off hunger.
• The famines would end up reducing the population of early modern Europe, as people died easier and having children got harder.
• Industry would also take the brunt of the damage, as the prices would continue to rise up, and unemployment would also rise as well.
• The poor began to rise up and revolt, especially women, to urge for a moral economy, an economy where the community’s needs will be more important than profit.
• Spain would have to deal with many revolts during this time, England would have their monarch killed, and the Russians would deal with their rebellion. Governments gave some leverage to keep the people happy.

The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648)

• Location: Holy Roman Empire
• The Thirty Years’ War was started between the Lutheran Princes and the Catholic Princes of the Holy Roman Empire, each forming the Protestant Union and the Catholic League
• When the two began their clash in Bohemia, other countries got brought in, leading to king Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and prime minister Cardinal Richelieu of France entering the war, securing the Protestant victory
• The Peace of Westphalia would first establish peace in the Holy Roman Empire, and then recognize the independent authority of over 300 German princes
• The Augsburg agreement of 1555 would also become permanent, adding Calvinism to the legally permissible faiths
• Many people would die due to the war, and the state would have to increase taxes to meet the cost of the war

State and Military Growth (Undefined)

• Location: All of Europe
• The leaders of Europe would begin to decide whether their countries will head to absolutist leadership or constitutionalist leadership
• Both absolutist and constitutionalist leaders would agree on pturning emergency measures into permanent parts of the government in order to get stronger and unify
• In these times, it is better for a country to be sovereign and unified rather than uncontrollable and separate
• Now that Feudal Lords didn’t control the battlegrounds, the governments of Europe went to maintaining permanent armies, which ended up becoming rather large
• England would be the outlier and not form a large military, because they are an island, and instead created a large navy

Baroque Style (~1750s)

• Location: All of Europe
• The baroque style of art and music began to be embraced by the Jesuits and the Catholics
• The baroque style would focus on expressing intense emotions and grandeur to help display the intense emotions of the time
• Peter Paul Rubens and Johann Sebastian Bach, baroque artists and musicians

Foundations of French Absolutism (1589-1643)

• Location: France
• Henry IV would help found the very basis for French absolutism, by first issuing the Edict of Nantes and appealed to the people in order to maintain peace in the Empire
• Cardinal Richelieu would design domestic policies to strengthen the control of the royals, centralizing the French State, and hold down the Protestants
• Cardinal Jules Mazarin caused the Fronde, which is when the people rioted over the increasing taxation and royal control

Louis XIV (1643-1715)

• Location: France
• Took personal role in decisions
• Revoked Edict to unify France religiously, but cooperated with nobles to ensure power
• Forced nobles to live at Versailles to keep an eye on them, wanting them to earn his favor, thereby maintaining his own power, Noble Women would played a role of advocating for decisions

Louis XIV’s Wars (~1660-1715)

• Location: France
• Louis maintained a large professional army, instead of relying on nobles, and won many wars and expanded, but gaining only commercial centers rather than gaining new land
• The Peace of Utrecht would allow Philip to become king, but never unite the French and Spanish Crown and give some land to England with the War of the Spanish Succession led France nearly bankrupt

Colbert and French Mercantilism (1665-1683)

• Location: France
• Mercantilism: Economic policy founded upon state based power on wealth. Colbert supported industries, raised tariff, and encouraged craftsmen to come to France, end by Warfare undoing the achievements

Decline of Spain (~1545-1688)

• Location: Iberian Peninsula
• Spain Potosi mine to New World/Mining with debts, high Rents, loss of countries = Lose dominance

Return of Serfdom (~1500-1650)

• Location: Central/Eastern Europe
• Peasants lost ability to own land and move, lost ability to own land independently and move on their own, Lords would commonly squeeze as much out of the peasants

Austrian Habsburgs (1619-1700)

• Location: Central Europe
• Eastern Europe instead of Central, common loyalty to people like German is the word for Bohemia, Catholicism is it

Prussian Absolutism (1640-1733)

• Location: Prussia
• Increase holding in providence to cooperate w Junker through military action and increase military and Frederick William the I form Army from training to have Army

Mongol Rule in Russia (1450-1480)

• Location: Russia
• Moscow power/Slav declare indence increase of marrry into byz

Build Russia (1533-1670)

• Location: Russia
• Ivan the Terrible to make the power himself orders bound of town and bring to russia. Expand serdoctome

Great Peter (1682-1725)

• Location: Russia
• Moderns increase Peter force the force is force on St. Petersburg Westernize, modernize, increase taxes to expand

Ottoman Empire (~1600-1700)

• Location: Ottoman Empire
• Peasants paying taxes, slaves staffing Sultan with millet, and marriage weakness cause declin in Sulieman.

English Civil War (1603-1649)

• Location: England
• Triennial acts to New model army leading to trial Cromwell 1650-1660