Pump Ops Notes

Fir013 Pump Ops. Notes




Thursday May 8th



Preparation Checklist & Incident Examples

  • A preparation checklist is crucial for hazardous materials response.

  • Examples of incidents:

    • Sunrise Propane explosion in Toronto.

    • Mississauga train derailment.

    • Ohio derailment.

    • Bhopal, India: Union Carbide gas release.

    • Beirut explosion.

    • West Texas incident.

    • Lac Megantic rail disaster (July 2013): 47 deaths, with 5 never found.

Introduction to Hazardous Materials

  • Hazardous materials possess harmful characteristics.

  • United States terminology: Hazardous Materials (Hazmat).

  • Canada terminology: Dangerous Goods.

Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD)

  • WMDs have the potential to cause mass casualties and damage.

  • WMD defined: Weapons of Mass Destruction.

  • CBRNE: Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, Explosive.

Hazmat/WMD Incident Definition

  • A hazardous materials/WMD incident is an emergency involving substances that pose an unreasonable risk to people, the environment, and property.

Potential Causes of Hazmat Incidents

  • Human error.

  • Mechanical breakdowns or malfunctions.

  • Container failures.

  • Transportation accidents.

  • Deliberate acts (terrorism).

  • Chemical suicides.

  • WMD incidents.

Complexities of Hazmat Incidents

  • Hazmat incidents present a variety of dangers, sometimes in small quantities.

  • They can be extremely difficult to contain and/or control.

  • Require specialized equipment, procedures, and PPE (Personal Protective Equipment).

  • Can be difficult to detect, requiring sophisticated monitoring equipment.

Responder Awareness

  • Hazardous materials incidents are not always clearly defined upon arrival.

  • First responders must be constantly alert to the presence of hazardous materials and their possible effects.

  • The mere presence of hazardous materials may change an incident’s dynamics.

First Responder Roles and Responsibilities

  • Hazmat first responders must safely respond to hazmat incidents.

  • Understanding personal limitations is critical.

  • Knowing when you cannot proceed any further is essential.

NFPA Standards for Hazmat Responders

  • First responder roles are established by law and NFPA standards.

  • NFPA 1072: Standard for Hazardous Materials/Weapons of Mass Destruction Emergency Response Personnel Professional Qualifications.

  • NFPA 472: Standard for Competence of Responders to Hazardous Materials/Weapons of Mass Destruction Incidents.

  • NFPA 473: Standard for Competencies for EMS Personnel Responding to Hazardous Materials/Weapons of Mass Destruction Incidents.

  • Individuals trained to meet NFPA 1072 will meet or exceed OSHA requirements for Awareness, Operations, and Technician levels.

Hazmat Training Levels

  • Three training levels:

    • Awareness: Perform limited defensive actions.

    • Operations: Perform defensive actions.

    • Mission-Specific: May be trained to perform additional defensive and limited offensive actions.

Specialized Response Personnel

  • Hazardous Materials Technician.

  • Hazardous Materials Technician Specialist.

  • Hazardous Materials Incident Commander.

  • Hazardous Materials Officer.

  • Hazardous Materials Safety Officer.

APIE Incident Model

  • APIE (Analyze, Plan, Implement, Evaluate) helps responders devise a 4-step response to any hazmat incident.

  • Not all aspects of APIE are addressed at the Awareness level.

  • As responsibilities increase, components of APIE also increase.

Organizational Procedures

  • Each fire and emergency services organization should have written procedures describing appropriate actions consistent with the level of training.

Awareness Level Personnel

  • Might be first to arrive at a hazmat incident.

  • Responsibilities: Transmit, Protect, Isolate.

  • Expected to transmit information to appropriate authorities and call for appropriate assistance.

  • Initiate protective actions.

  • Isolate hazardous areas and deny entry.

Operations Level Responders

  • Respond to hazmat releases as part of their normal duties.

  • Must be able to:

    • ID potential hazards.

    • ID response options.

    • Implement planned response to mitigate or control release.

    • Evaluate progress of actions taken.

Identifying Potential Hazards

  • Type of container involved.

  • Hazardous material involved.

  • Hazards presented by the material.

  • Potential behavior of material.

Operations Level Actions

  • Understand tasks they may be assigned.

  • Protect themselves.

  • Safety precautions and suitability of PPE.

  • Emergency decon needs.

Implementing the Response

  • Establish Incident Management System.

  • Establish scene control.

  • Implement protective actions such as evacuation.

  • Follow safety procedures.

  • Use PPE in a proper manner.

  • Avoid hazards and complete assignments.

  • Perform emergency decontamination.

  • ID and preserve potential evidence if a crime is suspected.

Mission-Specific Competencies

  • PPE.

  • Mass decon.

  • Technical decon.

  • Evidence preservation and sampling.

  • Product control.

  • Air monitoring and sampling.

  • Victim rescue and recovery.

  • Response to illicit laboratory incidents.

Exception to The Rule

  • First responders trained to Operations Level may perform offensive tactics when properly trained and equipped at incidents involving Gasoline, Diesel, Natural Gas, LPG.

Health and Safety

  • Hazmat incidents are characterized by work environment hazards, which may pose an Immediate Danger to Life and Health (IDLH).

  • These may not be immediately obvious or identifiable.

  • Protecting the health and safety of emergency response support personnel, and the general public, must always be the Incident Commander’s (IC's) primary concern.

  • The Health And Safety Of All Emergency Responders Is A Critical Issue.

  • Preventing Exposures To Hazardous Materials Is Always A Primary Concern.

  • Command Personnel Must Also Evaluate The Physical Working Conditions, Work Intervals, And The Stress Of Working In Personal Protective Clothing And Equipment.

  • It Is Everyone’s Goal to Have Responders Come Home Safe

Routes of Entry

  • Hazardous materials can enter the body in multiple ways:

    • Inhalation.

    • Ingestion.

    • Absorption.

    • Injection.

Potential Health Effects

  • Health effects may be:

    • Acute.

    • Chronic.

    • Delayed.

Toxicology

  • Toxicology is the study of chemical or physical agents that produce adverse responses in the biologic systems with which they interact.

  • Toxicity is defined as the ability of a substance to cause injury to a biological tissue.

  • Exposure + Toxicity = Health Hazard

  • “All things are poisons, for there is nothing without poisonous qualities. It is only the dose which makes a thing poisonous.” - Paracelsus.

  • A Number Of Factors Determine The Toxicity Of A Chemical:

    • Concentration of material (dose)

    • Duration of exposure

    • Routes of exposure

    • Physiological factors

  • Exposure + Toxicity = Health Hazard

Dose/Response Relationship

  • 1 oz. of Bourbon Consumed in 60 mins. results in a Minimal Acute Effect and None Chronic Effect

  • 1 qt. of Bourbon Consumed in 60 mins. results in Illness or Death Acute Effect and Minimal Chronic Effect

  • 1 oz. of Bourbon Consumed every 60 mins. for 12 hrs. Each day, 365 days a year results in a Minimal Acute Effect and Brain / Liver Damage Chronic Effect

  • 1 qt. of Bourbon Consumed over a year results in None Acute Effect and None Chronic Effect

Inhalation

  • The lungs are the transfer point in the human body and absorbs the toxic materials into the bloodstream and deposited into target organs

  • The most common route of entry for firefighters

  • WEAR YOUR SCBA

Respiratory Tract

  • The lungs have a surface area of 70-100 square metres (i.e. Skin has 2 square metres)

  • 90% of injuries/ deaths are from inhalation

  • Very vascular and quickly absorbs chemicals

Absorption

  • Taking in materials through your skin or eyes

  • Toxic Materials can be absorbed directly through the skin or they may enter the bloodstream through broken skin

Ingestion

  • Eating or swallowing hazardous materials through your mouth

  • Toxic materials swallowed can affect other organs as well as the gastrointestinal tract.

  • Always complete decon before eating or drinking

Injection

  • Taking in materials through a puncture in your skin

Effects of Hazardous Materials Exposures

  • A Local Effect Implies An Effect At The Point Of Contact.

  • A Systemic Effect Occurs When A Chemical Enters The Bloodstream And Attacks Target Organs And Internal Areas Of The Human Body.

  • Eyes, Skin, Liver and Blood

Target Organs and Examples:

  • Hepatotoxins target the liver

  • Examples: Alcohol, Vinyl chloride, Halogenated hydrocarbons

  • Nephrotoxins target the kidneys

    • Examples: Mercury

  • Neurotoxins target: CNS

    • Examples: Organophosphates, Carbon monoxide, Sarin, Hydrogen sulphide

  • Respiratory Toxins target: Lungs

    • Examples: Ammonia, chlorine

  • Hepatotoxins target: Blood

    • Examples: Carbon monoxide, Benzene, cyanides

  • Dermatoxins (cutaneous) target: System, Skin

    • Examples: KETONES, XYLENE, GASOLINE

  • Teratogens target: Fetus

    • Examples: Lead, benzene

  • Mutagens target: Cells (DNA)

    • Examples: Aluminum chloride, beryllium

  • Carcinogens target: all bones

    • Examples: Vinyl chloride, Benzene, Tobacco smoke

  • musculoskeletal target:

    • Examples: Sulphuric acid, phosphine

  • Immunotoxins target: Endocrine system

    • Examples: Benzene, Parathion, ethanol

Ways and Types of Harm

  • Mechanical

  • Thermal

  • Poisonous

    • Toxic

  • Corrosive

  • Asphyxiation

  • Radiological

  • Etiological

  • Corrosive

  • Etiologic

  • Radioactive

  • Asphyxiating

  • Oxidizing

  • Reactive

  • Unstable

  • Explosive

  • Cryogenic

  • Flammable

TRACEM

  • THERMAL

  • RADIOLOGICAL

  • ASPHYXIATION

  • CHEMICAL (corrosives/toxics)

  • ETIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL

  • MECHANICAL

Mechanisms of Harm

  • Energy Release

  • Corrosivity

  • Toxicity

Types of Energy Release

  • Heat

  • Mechanical

  • Pressure

  • Electricity

  • Chemical

  • Radiation

Heat (thermal) hazards:

  • Hazardous material can cause temperature extremes

  • Fires, explosions, burns

  • Environmental factors can cause heat illness, complicate hazmat operations

  • Lack of heat can also cause harm

  • Thermal Elevated temperature materials

  • Energy Hazards

  • Exothermic reactions

  • Fires and explosions

  • Hot weather

  • Cryogenic liquids and gases

  • Cold temperatures

Mechanical Energy

  • Responders can be injured by flying or falling objects

  • Friction injuries may occur - abrasions, blisters, burns

Pressurized Materials

  • Can release violently

  • Materials may expand rapidly

  • Spread hazards quickly over potentially large areas

Electrical Hazards

  • Electrical Utilities

  • Energized containers

  • Electrical equipment: Portable generators

  • Power tools

Chemical Energy

  • Flames or an explosion

  • Release heat

  • Use heat

  • Create new hazardous materials with new/different hazards

Radiation Exposure

  • Medical centers

  • Industrial operations

  • Nuclear power plants

  • Research facilities

  • Terrorist attacks

Corrosives

  • Chemicals that destroy or burn living tissues.

  • It can hurt if they contact the skin or body

  • May damage tools and equipment

Toxic Substances

  • Cause damage on the molecular scale.

  • Effects may be:

    • Fast-acting, acute

    • Chronic, not manifested for many years

Types of Chemical Hazards

  • POISONS/TOXINS

  • CORROSIVES

  • IRRITANTS

  • CONVULSANTS

  • CARCINOGEN

  • SENSITIZERS/ALLERGENS

Chemical Asphyxiants

  • Carbon monoxide and cyanide

  • TYPES OF CHEMICAL HAZARDS

  • Chemical asphyxiants deprive the body of oxygen, interrupting the transfer and use of oxygen by the bloodstream

  • Eg: carbon monoxide

  • Simple asphyxiants

    • Displace oxygen in the ambient atmosphere, causing oxygen deprivation, which leads to unconsciousness and death.

    • Eg: carbon dioxide, nitrogen

Chemical Corrosives

  • cause visible and/or irreversible changes to the composition of a material due to direct contact.

  • Similarly, these can also cause a localized reaction in the human body at the point of contact.

  • E.g., Sulphuric acid and Hydrochloric acid

Irritants

  • cause harm to the eyes, skin, or respiratory tract of a person.

  • The hazards can manifest as redness, rashes, inflammation, coughing, or hemorrhaging.

  • Irritants are mostly short-term severe illnesses, but can also have long-lasting side effects in some people.

  • People can also have an allergic reaction to some of these chemical materials, with long-lasting health impacts or even be fatal.

Sensitizers & Allergens

  • cause an allergic reaction in people who face repeated exposure over time to certain chemicals.

  • Reactions to chemicals deemed as sensitizers vary from person to person and can be either acute or chronic.

  • Chemical exposure can manifest as swelling of the airway or develop into dangerous illnesses such as lung disease.

  • Some diseases, such as asthma and contact dermatitis, become common among people due to over-exposure to chemicals.

Convulsants

  • cause involuntary muscle contractions (convulsions).

  • These convulsions can result in death.

  • Common examples of these are nerve agents used in chemical warfare and organophosphates used in pesticides.

Carcinogens

  • cancer-causing chemical substances, and a small amount of such a chemical is enough to severely harm human health.

  • The hazards of such chemical substances will only appear many years after exposure.

  • There are over 200 known human carcinogens.

  • Eg; Benzene and Vinyl chloride

Mutagens & Teratogens

  • Chemicals classified as mutagens cause genetic changes to a cell’s DNA and RNA.

  • Genetic changes can cause cancer, prevent normal biological functions, or may result in the malfunction of a particular organ.

  • Benzene, ionizing radiation, and hydrogen peroxide.

Teratogens

  • can disrupt the normal development of a fetus, causing birth defects and even the healthy advancement of pregnancy.

  • Chemical Teratogen Examples: Thalidomide, ionizing radiation, and organic mercury compounds.

Biological Hazards

  • Viruses:

    • The simplest of microorganisms that can only live and replicate in the living cells of its host.

    • Do not respond to antibiotics.(smallpox, Ebola)

  • Bacteria:

    • Single-cell organisms that can cause disease in people by invading the tissues. (anthrax, E. coli, Salmonella

    • Rickettsia: Bacteria found in ticks, spiders, lice, rats, and mosquitoes. The bacteria are transmitted via a bite.(Lyme disease, typhus, )

Canadian Regulatory Agencies

  • Transport Canada (TC): Transportation safety and Transportation of Dangerous goods Act.

  • Environment Canada: Public health and the Environment, Canadian Environmental Protection Act.

  • Health Canada: Worker safety, Hazardous products act, WHMIS, Pesticides.

  • Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC): Nuclear material Production/transportation/

Common Hazmat Incidents

  • Most involve:

    • Flammable/combustible liquids

    • Corrosives

    • Anhydrous ammonia

    • Chlorine

Transportation Incidents

  • Statistics indicate that most transportation incidents occur while materials are being transported by highway rather than air, rail, or water.





Thursday May 15th, 2025

Pumping Apparatus Driver/Operator 

Systematic Apparatus Maintenance

  • Every department should develop Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) for systematic apparatus maintenance.

  • These SOPs should address:

    • Who is responsible for maintenance?

    • What maintenance tasks need to be performed?

    • When should these tasks be completed?

    • What is the method for reporting, correcting, and documenting maintenance activities?

  • Compliance with NFPA standards is essential.

Ontario Fire Service Guidelines

  • Ontario's Section 21 Guidance Notes provide best practices for firefighter health and safety.

  • Fire Fighter Guidance Note # 1-2 focuses on Vehicle Inspections & Maintenance Program.

  • Annual Commercial Vehicle Inspections:

    • All fire apparatus exceeding 4500 kilograms (gross weight, registered gross weight, or manufacturer's gross vehicle weight rating) must undergo annual inspections as per O. Reg. 611 (Safety Inspections) under the Highway Traffic Act.

    • Vehicles must display an inspection sticker.

    • Inspections must be conducted at a licensed Motor Vehicle Inspection Station.

    • Fire departments/municipalities can apply to be licensed if they have a certified mechanic, appropriate tools, and a suitable shop facility.

  • Driver Inspections:

    • While daily inspections aren't mandatory for fire apparatus under Section 107 of the Highway Traffic Act and O. Reg. 199/07, they are recommended as a good health and safety practice.

    • Fire departments should train firefighters on conducting driver inspections and establish procedures for all fire apparatus.

    • Vehicle inspections should occur either at the beginning of each shift or as soon as reasonably possible after responding to an emergency call.

    • Post-emergency call vehicle inspections should be conducted if a pre-inspection was not possible.

    • Inspections should be accurately documented, and firefighters should continuously monitor the vehicle for defects during the work shift.

  • Vehicle Preventative Maintenance Program:

    • Fire departments should develop a preventative maintenance program with regular inspections to ensure vehicle safety.

    • A record of these inspections, including the date, odometer reading, nature of inspection, and any subsequent repairs, should be maintained.

    • Vehicles should be weighed upon licensing to ensure safe overall weight and weight distribution.

    • The impact of equipment redistribution on vehicle balance/weight should be considered.

Apparatus Maintenance Responsibilities

  • Maintenance responsibilities vary by jurisdiction.

  • Driver/operators often handle minor deficiencies.

  • Certified mechanics address more complex problems.

General Guidelines for Vehicle Maintenance

  • Crews are generally prohibited from performing unauthorized electrical or mechanical repairs/installations.

  • Personnel are expected to actively participate in inspecting and maintaining vehicles.

  • Company Officers should be immediately notified of any discovered deficiencies.

  • Any unsafe fire service vehicle must be immediately taken out of service until repaired.

  • Minor repairs (e.g., light bulbs) can be performed at fire stations if personnel are comfortable with the task and have the necessary tools.

  • For repairs that allow the vehicle to remain in service, the Mechanical Division should be contacted by the Company Officer to discuss resource availability.

  • Requests for on-call mechanics after hours/weekends should be made through the Platoon Chief.

Notifications Regarding Apparatus Status

  • The District Chief must be informed by the Company Officer of any change in apparatus status within their district.

  • The Platoon Chief must be notified by the District Chief whenever an apparatus needs to be moved to the Mechanical Division or undergo a changeover.

  • If an apparatus requires an extended period out of service for repair, the Platoon Chief may opt for a changeover to a reserve unit, following Standard Operating Guideline A-CHNG.

Maintenance Schedules

  • Maintenance schedules vary by jurisdiction and staffing levels.

  • Include weekly or monthly detailed inspections.

  • Also includes maintenance checks at the beginning of each tour of duty.

Importance of Accurate Documentation

  • Accurate documentation, reporting, and follow-up are crucial for apparatus inspections.

Documentation Policies

  • Each fire service should establish inspection and maintenance policies.

  • These policies need to include:

    • Procedure for documentation and communication.

    • Standardized written forms or computer programs.

    • Filing system for record storage, retrieval, and review.

    • Inspection checklist for specific apparatus.

Driver/Operator Responsibilities Regarding Repairs

  • Driver/operators should follow established policy for documenting, reporting, and following up on repairs.

  • Steps include:

    • Discovering needed repair.

    • Notifying supervisor.

    • Taking immediate action for serious issues.

    • Documenting per policy.

    • Following up in a reasonable amount of time.

Repair Orders and Requisitions

  • All apparatus repairs should be initiated or followed up with a Fleet Focus/Repair Order, in accordance with Standard Operating Guideline E-REPR.

  • Personnel are responsible for bringing any conditions requiring a Fleet Focus/Repair Order to the attention of the Company Officer.

  • Repair Orders are typically completed in triplicate, with duplicate copies sent to the Mechanical Division.

  • History Report and Record Log entries should include the Repair Order/Fleet Focus number, a detailed description of the work, and the name of the submitting individual.

  • Upon completion, the completion date and relevant details should be noted in the History Report and Record Log.

  • Equipment and supplies should be ordered through a Requisition, completed and signed by Company Officers, as per Standard Operating Guideline E-REPR.

  • Personnel are responsible for bringing any equipment or supplies ordered via Requisitions to the Company Officer's attention.

  • A record of all Requisitions should be documented in the apparatus History Report and Record Log, including the date, quantity received, and any relevant details.

Functions of Maintenance and Inspection Records

  • Apparatus maintenance and inspection records serve several functions:

    • Documentation for warranty claims.

    • Evidence for accident investigators.

    • Assistance in deciding whether to purchase or repair apparatus.

Vehicle Cleanliness

  • Cleanliness of apparatus and onboard equipment is an integral part of any inspection and maintenance program.

  • A clean apparatus is easier to inspect.

  • Cleanliness promotes longer vehicle life.

Benefits of a Clean Apparatus

  • Easier inspection due to the absence of dirt and grime.

  • Clean engine allows proper leak inspection.

  • Removal of gummy residue from diesel fuel.

  • Prevention of inoperable linkages, fuel injectors, and other controls due to dirt collection.

  • More obvious mechanical defects with a clean undercarriage.

  • Easier visualization of components.

Overcleaning Precautions

  • Overcleaning the fire apparatus can have adverse effects.

  • Steam cleaning or high pressure washing may remove lubrication from the chassis, engine, pump, and underbody.

  • Caution should be exercised when using high pressure cleaning equipment due to complex wiring and connections.

  • Routine lubrication may be necessary after high pressure cleaning.

Driver/Operator Responsibilities Regarding Cleanliness

  • Driver/operators must ensure that the entire apparatus is clean and well maintained, including:

    • Washing.

    • Interior cleaning.

    • Glass care.

    • Waxing.

Systematic Inspection Approach

  • A systematic approach to apparatus inspection helps ensure that all required items are checked.

  • This approach should incorporate:

    • SOPs.

    • NFPA standards.

    • Manufacturer recommendations.

Walk-Around Inspections

  • Operational readiness and pretrip road worthiness inspections are both conducted during a walk-around inspection.

Interior Cab Inspection

  • Once the exterior examination is finished, driver/operators may inspect the interior of the cab.

  • This includes:

    • Adjusting mirrors.

    • Adjusting seats and seat belts.

    • Starting the engine.

    • Checking dashboard instruments.

    • Checking miscellaneous equipment stored in the cab.

Steering System Inspection

  • Driver/operators should inspect the steering system for proper adjustment and reaction.

  • Steering wheel play should be no more than 10 degrees in either direction.

Braking Systems

  • Pumpers may be equipped with different braking systems depending on size and age of the apparatus.

  • These can include:

    • Hydraulic brakes (smaller or older apparatus).

    • ABS (Larger or more modern apparatus).

    • Air brakes.

Brake Testing

  • Apparatus brakes should be thoroughly tested at least annually.

  • This includes evaluating:

    • Braking ability of apparatus in motion.

    • Parking brake when apparatus is stopped.

Engine Compartment Checks

  • Engine compartment checks and maintenance should only be performed with the engine shut off.

  • Inspections should be performed according to SOPs, including:

    • Fluid levels.

    • Tilt cab controls.

    • Cab latches.

Battery Care

  • Most modern truck batteries are maintenance free, but older apparatus may need more care.

  • This can include:

    • Checking cable connections.

    • Adding distilled water to older apparatus batteries, if required.

    • Keeping clean.

    • Checking for cracks or leaks.

    • Charging or jump-starting if necessary.

Post-Operation Inspections

  • It is prudent to perform some inspections after the apparatus has been operated for an extended period of time.

Fire Suppression Equipment Maintenance

  • General fire suppression equipment maintenance procedures.

Fire Pump Checks

  • Fire pumps are checked at regular intervals and inspected to detect deficiencies or failure.

  • This includes flushing the system (tank, piping, pump, and discharges).

  • Some checks done on an as-needed basis.

Daily Pump Operations Check (Example: Toronto Fire Services)

  • As per Toronto Fire Services SOGs, the driver is responsible for completing an operational check of the pump at the beginning of each shift.

  • For apparatus equipped with a Captain Pressure Governor, the procedure is as follows:

    • Position the apparatus suitably, place the transmission in neutral (N), and engage the parking/spring brakes; Secure the vehicle using the apparatus wheel chocks.

    • Properly engage the pump, noting the visual indicators of proper engagement (observe the green "okay to pump" light, note the speedometer, listen for pump engagement, and confirm 4th gear lock up).

    • Observe the apparatus water tank level and open the Tank to Pump valve.

    • Observe that the Captain Pressure Governor indicates MODE and all three green LEDs (PUMP ENGAGED, OK TO PUMP, and THROTTLE READY) are illuminated.

    • Press the MODE switch and ensure that the Captain Pressure Governor is operating in the RPM mode; use the PRESET switch to increase the RPM to between 1000-1200 and activate the primer to ensure its operation and lubrication. Note positive pressure on the pump pressure gauge. Use both the INC and DEC switches a couple of times to confirm proper response.

    • Press the MODE switch and ensure that the Captain Pressure Governor is now operating in the PRESSURE mode.

    • Open the Tank Fill valve to commence water circulation; Use the PRESET switch will increase the pump pressure to approximately 750 kPa on the pump pressure gauge. Use both the INC and DEC switches a couple of times to confirm proper response.

    • Return the apparatus to idle speed by using the IDLE switch in order to confirm proper response of this switch.

    • Ensure that all valves are closed. Complete proper pump disengage procedures.

    • Operational check is now complete

Example SOGs & SOPs: General Cleaning and Decontamination of Apparatus (Toronto Fire Services)

  • Purpose: To provide a guideline for the general cleaning and decontamination of apparatus.

  • Responsibility:

    • Firefighters are responsible for cleaning, decontaminating, and washing apparatus to which they are assigned.

    • Company Officers are responsible for the cleanliness of the apparatus they command.

  • Guidelines:

    • Apparatus are to be kept in a state of cleanliness; the exterior of the apparatus shall be washed and wiped in the morning and evening by the Platoon on duty or as directed by the Company Officer.

    • Apparatus interiors shall be vacuumed and all rubbish removed on a daily basis, followed by cleaning with a soap/water solution. Particular cleaning attention should be given to the seats, door handles, steering wheel, transmission controls, and all radios and the mobile data terminal.

    • Company Officers shall ensure the participation of all crew members assigned to the task.

    • Company Officers should direct that apparatus be washed at any time due to the uncleanliness of the vehicle. Apparatus should be cleaned at any time it is subject to excessive dirt accumulation.

    • Inclement weather such as extreme cold, continuous snow conditions may justify a delay in cleaning apparatus. This decision shall be made by the Company Officer assigned to the apparatus.

    • Apparatus bay floors shall be cleared of debris, dirt, and water upon completion of apparatus washing.

  • Decontamination:

    • All personnel performing any decontamination procedures shall ensure the following minimum level of personal protective equipment is worn: Safety glasses as required, Nitrile Gloves, N95 respirator.

    • Whenever personnel wear contaminated bunker gear in the cab or are concerned about the possible transfer of bedbugs/lice or similar in the cab area of the apparatus, the interior of the cab shall be decontaminated by the Platoon on duty.

    • The cab area shall first be swept and/or vacuumed then the affected interior surfaces shall be cleaned with a mild soap/water solution prior to disinfection - disinfectant (as supplied by Quartermaster) is used to remove contaminants only after cleaning has been performed.

    • Personnel shall wear appropriate levels of PPE which may include: protective suit, nitrile gloves, protective glasses and an N95 mask. Crews shall consult one of the TFS Heavy Hazs.

    • Crews shall consult one of the TFS Heavy Hazs. The HAZ vehicles carry HEPA vacuums with filters and protective suits.

  • Safety:

    • Approved safety footwear shall be worn while cleaning fire apparatus.

    • All cloths/rags, nitrile gloves or protective suits used during the cleaning or decontamination of an apparatus shall be disposed of in an approved container. Where decontamination is due to bedbugs/lice the filter and protective suits shall be sealed in a plastic bag prior to disposal in a garbage bin outside the building.

    • Contaminated PPE, including station wear, shall be cleaned as soon as possible after decontamination procedures are completed (refer to SOG Maintenance of Personal Protective Equipment -Bunker Suits, Flash Hoods, Gloves).

Thursday May 22nd, 2025



Pumping Apparatus: Driver/Operator Handbook

Positioning Apparatus

  • A fire department pumper's primary function is to:

    • Provide water directly for fire streams.

    • Support other pumpers or aerial apparatus.

  • Drivers and operators must know how to properly position apparatus in different scenarios, including fire attacks and water supply operations.

  • Drivers/operators will participate in determining the best placement for pumpers.

  • Factors influencing positioning:

    • Pre-incident planning.

    • District familiarization.

    • Making informed decisions.

Initial Apparatus Positioning

  • Size-up determines the most advantageous position for the attack pumper.

  • Considerations for first-arriving apparatus vs. later-arriving apparatus.

First Arriving Pump Class Apparatus Responsibilities

  • Establish command.

  • Position the apparatus past the address involved, maintaining space for aerial devices.

  • Secure a water supply.

    • Communicate via radio if water cannot be secured.

  • Affect immediate rescue.

  • Advance hose lines for rescue, exposures, fire confinement, and extinguishment.

  • If a Quint is the first arriving pump class apparatus, another Aerial shall be requested if there is not another one assigned on the initial dispatch

  • Transfer command, if appropriate.

Second Arriving Pump Class Apparatus Responsibilities

  • Ensure command is established.

  • Position apparatus by a second hydrant, maintaining space for an aerial device.

  • Secure a secondary water supply in case the first fails.

    • Preferably a Class AA hydrant (blue rings on 65mm ports) if the initial hydrant has less flow.

  • May be required to relay pump to the first arriving pump class apparatus on a split lay when instructed by the IC (distance too great from hydrant to fire)

  • Ensure the first in attack line is advancing to the seat of the fire (aid in advancing hose, removing kinks, door control).

  • Stretch a backup line, unless otherwise dictated by the IC (second line).

First Arriving Aerial/Platform/Quint Responsibilities

  • Position to access the structure for rescue and elevated master stream operations.

  • Provide a second means of firefighter egress with aerial device or ground ladders.

  • Forcible Entry

  • Perform search and rescue

  • Ventilation

Specialty Apparatus Responsibilities

  • Ensure command has been established.

  • Position apparatus appropriately to leave room for incoming apparatus and access to water supply.

  • Forcible Entry

  • Perform search and rescue

  • Ventilation

  • Use of specialty equipment

General Safety and Positioning Considerations

  • Park the apparatus in a safe position when fire conditions are evident.

    • Offers best tactical advantage.

    • Includes exit route if withdrawal is necessary.

  • If no fire is evident:

    • Allow personnel to view three sides of the building.

    • Pull past the building front.

    • Consider best access point for personnel and equipment.

    • Allow personnel efficient access to building

  • When parking:

    • If water supply or fire department connections need to be made.

    • Assist in pulling attack hoselines and operating pump.

    • Remain with apparatus.

Situational Awareness

  • Situations that may affect standard apparatus placement:

    • Rescue situations.

    • Exposures.

    • Water supply.

    • Method of attack.

    • Hoseline deployment.

    • Wind direction.

    • Terrain.

    • Roadway response.

    • Structural collapse.

    • Preincident planning.

    • Overhead utility lines.

    • Falling debris.

Guidelines for Parking Apparatus
Avoid:

  • Parking on/over maintenance (manhole) covers or storm grates.

  • Parking too close to curb side fixed objects, impeding access to compartments.

  • Parking too near building entrances and exits.

  • Positioning apparatus too close together, restricting movement.

  • Positioning in any building "collapse area" (one and a half times the height).

  • Off-road "soft" surfaces.

  • Leaving crew cab and compartment doors open when not being used.

Do:

  • Look "overhead" for power lines, trees, signs that may be a potential problem or hazard.

  • Consider wind direction.

  • Locate the vehicle to allow personnel to exit from the curbside.

  • Allow for relocation due to unforeseen danger or reassignment.

  • Use wheel chocks.

  • Shutdown headlights and forward-facing white warning lights (unless needed for illumination).

  • Park specialized apparatus and support units near the perimeter.

Positioning to Support Aerial Apparatus

  • Yield the optimum position close to the building for aerial apparatus.

  • "Inside/outside" method: Operate as close to aerial apparatus as possible if providing water for elevated streams.

  • Pumpers often arrive before aerial apparatus.

General Guidelines for Aerial Positioning

  • Only one opportunity exists for the most effective positioning.

  • Distance from buildings/obstacles depends on required height and apparatus use.

  • Consider the collapse zone.

  • Position for best access, rescue, improvised standpipe, and/or master stream operations, ideally accessing two sides of the structure.

  • Consider water supply.

  • Provide sufficient clearance to avoid sewers and catch basins.

  • Position to allow full deployment of stabilizers, if possible.

  • Avoid parking over underground parking garages or areas with weight load limits.

  • Position on a level, solid footing, if possible.

  • Use stabilizer pads in conjunction with stabilizers.

Supporting Fire Department Connections (FDC)

  • Position the pumper as close to the water source as possible to efficiently supply an FDC.

  • Pumper should be no more than 30m from the hydrant.

Pumper Usage

  • Directly supply apparatus at the fireground.

  • Serve as source pumpers for relay or water shuttle operations.

  • Draft water from a static water supply.

  • Driver/operators should be wary of drafting from locations off hard surfaces.

  • Areas may become soft when wet.

  • Apparatus may sink into the ground or become stuck when attempting to drive off

  • Surfaces near banks of waterways may become unstable

  • Conduct risk/benefit analysis when considering questionable locations

  • Can injure firefighters or create tipping hazard for apparatus

Medical Responses

  • The driver/operator and apparatus can significantly impact the safety of emergency medical incidents.

Considerations:

  • Leave enough room for ambulances.

  • Protect firefighters on the street or roadway.

  • Park off the street or highway if possible.

  • Ensure the surface is stable.

  • Use apparatus to shield the work area.

  • Use traffic control devices.

  • Consider the proximity of exhaust discharge.

Guidelines at Medical Incidents:

  • Assist the incoming Toronto EMS unit by leaving clear access.

  • Leave sufficient space between the Toronto EMS vehicle and TFS apparatus.

    • Provides greater protection for personnel working at the rear of an ambulance.

    • Prevents injury if the fire apparatus is rear-ended.

  • Leave ample room for the EMS unit to safely clear the area without backing up.

Medical Calls

  • After dropping off the fire crew as close and safe as possible to the location of the patient, the apparatus driver shall safely position the apparatus so as not to obstruct the most convenient point of patient access and egress by the ambulance unit and Paramedics, but should not reverse the apparatus without a TFS spotter. At fire calls, apparatus function remains the priority when positioning.

  • Once the apparatus is safely parked, Firefighters driving apparatus shall be out of the apparatus at medical incidents and shall assume the responsibilities of the Exterior Access and Egress Team.

Exterior Access and Egress Team;

  • Usually assigned to the Firefighter driving the apparatus. Firefighter should not leave the sight line of the apparatus.

  • Facilitates Paramedic access and egress to and from the patient to the best of their abilities. This could involve, but is not limited to:

    • Holding open doors and gates.

    • Propping apartment/condo doors open for ease of paramedic access

    • Moving shoes and other obstructions from the stretcher path.

    • Summoning elevators.

    • Clearing obstructive snow.

Highway Positioning
General Guidelines:

  • Position the apparatus safely, considering the situation.

  • Initial positioning is crucial for personnel safety.

  • Take one traffic lane more than required, using blocker trucks and cones to taper traffic away from the incident.

  • Position in the flow of traffic only as a last resort.

  • Relocate off the roadway as soon as possible.

  • Delaying traffic unnecessarily can result in secondary accidents.

Positioning on Roadways with Speeds Less Than 90 km/h:

  • Angle the apparatus across the roadway to close it off until police assume traffic control.

  • Use cones to direct traffic and provide a safe zone.

Blocker Vehicles

  • Dispatch a second fire apparatus as a "Blocker Vehicle" on major highways.

  • Block one additional lane of traffic when needed.

  • Use the fend-off position (apparatus at a 30-degree angle with the front toward the center line) to provide added protection.

    • Gives approaching motorists the best visibility of the emergency vehicle's side.

  • Position the apparatus to provide both longitudinal and lateral buffer space.

    • At least 30 meters from the working area.

    • Position the front and/or back bumper of the apparatus at least 0.3 meters from the pavement markings of an open live lane.



Thursday May 29th, 2025



Water and Fire Pumps
Centrifugal Pumps

  • The centrifugal pump has been the "workhorse" of fire pumps for many years in the U.S. and Canada.

  • A centrifugal pump uses rotation to impart velocity to a liquid and then converts that velocity into pressure.

Centrifugal Force

  • Centrifugal force is an outward force experienced by an object moving in a circular path, directed away from the center of rotation.

Why a Centrifugal Pump?

  • Takes advantage of incoming pressure.

    • Operates at variable pressure depending on need.

    • Simple in construction and operation.

    • Easily maintained and less likely to be damaged by bad pump operation.

    • Able to pump dirty or gritty water with minimal damage to the pump.

    • Small and compact.

    • Allows flow to be interrupted without stopping the engine.

    • Can be connected to an internal combustion engine by direct drive.

Centrifugal vs. Positive Displacement Pumps

  • Centrifugal pumps and positive displacement pumps are the most widely used types of pumps, and both have a different working method.

  • Both are utilized by the fire department, with the centrifugal pump being the most common.

Centrifugal Pumps

  • Will deadhead and stop flowing water safely if they no longer have a flow path.

  • It can take advantage of incoming pressure to boost the volume and pressure on the discharge side of the pump.

  • Cannot draw water from a draft (make a suction) if the pump is dry.

  • Fewer moving parts (a spinning impeller in a housing).

  • Can pump contaminants.

  • The fluid moving out of the centrifugal pump has a varying flow rate based on pressure.

Positive Displacement Pumps

  • It can easily generate pressures that could burst the hose if the pressure relief systems are not active.

  • Limited in its capacity by the size of the pumping chambers and the speed of the pump.

  • Create a vacuum on the inlet side, making them capable of creating suction lift.

  • Lots of moving parts.

  • Traps a certain amount of liquid and forces it from the suction to the discharge port.

  • Will move fluid at the same speed regardless of the pressure on the inlet.

  • Create very high pressures but have limited flow volume compared with centrifugal pumps.

Disadvantages of a Centrifugal Pump

  • Cannot pump air; therefore, a smaller pump called a primer pump is provided.

Parts of a Centrifugal Pump

  • Discharge, Volute, Impeller, Stripping Edge, Hub, Vanes, Shroud, Casing, Eye

Pump Operation

  • The rotation in a fire apparatus pump is powered by the same transmission output shaft that powers the drive axle.

  • A centrifugal pump impeller slings liquid out of the volute creating pressure as it moves into the discharge piping.

  • Water pressure develops in a pump volute when water accumulates faster than it can escape into a discharge.

Cavitation

  • The sound of pump cavitation is similar to the sound of a handful of small pebbles circulating through the pump.

  • Occurs when there is insufficient water entering the pump to meet the demand of the discharge side of the pump.

  • This causes the water to boil (flash into vapor) at the inlet of the pump impeller.

  • As pockets of water vapor travel from the impeller eye to the outer edge of the impeller, they meet a higher pressure area where they turn back into liquid (water).

  • This action generates a shock effect, or so-called mini implosions, which tends to break away tiny pieces of metal from inside the pump casing and impeller.

  • Cavitation degrades the performance of a pump, resulting in a fluctuating flow rate and discharge pressure.

  • Cavitation can also cause excessive pump vibration, which could damage pump bearings, wearing rings, and seals.

  • When pump operators notice the sound of cavitation within a pump they should act swiftly to either increase water supply or reduce discharge pressure, thus effectively slowing the impeller RPM down.

Priming the Centrifugal Pump

  • Primed means fully water flooded and all the air inside the pump casing preferably removed.

  • As mentioned before, the centrifugal pump cannot pump air.

  • This becomes an important factor when it comes to drafting and even draining tank to pump operations.

  • When drafting, air must be expelled from the centrifugal pump or damage can occur. This is accomplished by using a priming device.

  • The priming device used is called a priming pump.

  • Priming pumps are positive displacement pumps. The two most common types of positive displacement pumps are rotary gear and rotary vane.

Priming Pump

  • Activating the vacuum primer removes air from inside the suction and discharge casings of the fire pump.

  • Removing air lowers the pressure inside the pump casing below atmospheric pressure.

  • It is atmospheric pressure pushing on the static supply source that ultimately provides the force to move water into the hard sleeve suction hose and up to the eye of the impeller.

  • Once the fire pump is flooded (primed) and then discharging water, it creates its own vacuum at the impeller eye to carry on this low -pressure area for continuous operation.

Pressure Control

  • Pressure supplied to and delivered from fire apparatus pumps must be regulated to ensure safety and to deliver predictable water flows.

  • The movement of water inevitably results in pressure fluctuations that can damage equipment, increase or decrease water flow, or cause hoselines to become unmanageable.

Purposes of Intake Relief Valves:

  • Safety valve set at the factory to prevent excessive supply pressure or water hammer. The valve is typically set for 875 or 1000 KPa for pumps.

  • Used to control a satisfactory residual pressure at the intake of the pump during a relay with changes in flow.

  • Installed to limit pressure increases on the suction side of the pump.

Purposes of Discharge Relief Valves:

  • Safety valve set at factory to prevent excessive pressure or water hammer being delivered from a specific discharge. This pressure is typically 1275 KPa for units.

Pump Capacity

  • Each fire apparatus pump receives rating from Underwriter’s Laboratories.

  • The pump's flow capacity is listed on the specifications plate mounted on the pump panel.

  • The flow is listed in relation to pressure and is verified by annual pump tests.

  • A typical fire apparatus pump is rated to flow its full capacity at 1000 KPa. It will flow 75 percent of its capacity at 1350 KPa and 50 percent at 1700 KPa

  • A pump's actual capacity depends on the size of its impellers and waterways.

Pump ULC Plate

  • A very common misconception is that increasing pump pressure also increases volume, however this is not always correct. A fire pump cannot “make” water; it can only pressurize the supply it receives.

  • The plate tells the operator what the maximum amount of water the pump can flow at 1000 Kpa. When the pumps get their ratings, it is done while drafting. When receiving additional pressure from a hydrant or other source, the pump can exceed its rated flow.

Net Pump Pressure

  • NPP is the pressure the pump is creating on its own, without additional pressure from a hydrant or relay etc.

  • It is the difference between the intake pressure and the discharge pressure

    • Discharge pressure – intake pressure = NPP

  • An increase in throttle does not always mean an increase in flow

  • As your net pump pressure increases past 1000KPa , you will actually be flowing LESS water

Engaging the Pump

  1. Stop truck

  2. Shift truck transmission to neutral

  3. Set parking brake

  4. Move pump shift assembly control into ‘Neutral’ position and pause.

  5. Move Pump Shift Assembly control into ‘Pump’ position.

  6. Place engine transmission into designated pumping gear most apparatus use ‘Drive’.

  7. Look and listen for indications that the pump is in gear.

  8. Dismount the apparatus and proceed with pumping operations.

Pump Shift Assembly

  • The Pump Shift Assembly is located in the cab within reach of the driver.

  • It is a three-position black handle with a yellow safety collar.

  • The three positions are: Road, Neutral, and Pump

  • The Pump Shift Assembly controls the transfer of chassis transmission power from the drive axle to the pump gear box.

  • Apparatus with a mid-ship pump have a split shaft, meaning that the driveline/shaft is split into two parts. The front part goes from the transmission to a gear box to drive or turn the pump, then from the gear box to the rear differential on the drive axle

Indications that Pump Is in Gear:

  • OK to Pump and Pump Engaged indicators are lit- Located in the cab by the Pump Shift Assembly

    • Located on the main pump panel

  • Speedometer may change from 0 mph to 10-15mph (apparatus dependent)

  • Depressing the accelerator pedal slightly results in no RPM change or no lurching of the apparatus (apparatus dependent)

  • Motor changes sound

  • Drive shaft is rotating between the transmission and pump gear box

  • Positive pressure indication on discharge gauge

  • Operators need to become familiar with how their apparatus reacts when successfully placed into pump mode. The operator must know the sights and sounds for those times when light bulbs burn out or don’t work.

The Pump Panel

  • Pump overheat indicator and test button

  • Pump compound (Vacuum) gauge (Intake)

  • Pump pressure gauge (Discharge)

  • Class One electric pressure governor (EPG)

  • Class One engine status center

  • Electronic controls for the electric master intake valve

  • Tank water level indicator (water tank holds 2200 litres)

  • Individual discharge gauges

  • Individual discharge handles with twist lock feature –

  • Deck gun valve

  • Tank to Pump valve

  • Tank fill valve

  • Pump primer handle

  • 65mm discharge

  • Large diameter discharge hand wheel and indicating lights

  • Engine cooler valve

  • Master intake valve (MIV)

  • MIV Override (master intake valve manual override)

  • ULC plate

  • 65mm intake (suction) (Intake)

Intake Vacuum Gauge/Compound Gauge

  • A compound gauge is used on the inlet or feed side of the pump and can measure pressure below atmospheric (required when drafting from static/open water) and positive pressure (required when water is being supplied from a hydrant or other pressurized source).

  • There is only one compound gauge on the pump panel. However, some pump panels use gauges that have the same face that might look like compound gauges.

  • In my opinion, your Compound/Pump Intake Gauge is the most important gauge on your panel. Why? Because it holds the answer to your remaining water supply at a working fire. It can tell you a lot if you know what to look for.

Master Discharge Pressure Gauge

  • The discharge pressure gauge measures discharge pressure on the discharge side of the pump.

  • The main discharge pressure gauge measures the discharge pressure at the center of the pump.

  • The compound gauge and the main discharge gauge are typically the two largest gauges on the pump panel.

Electric Pressure Governor (EPG)

  • EPGs are electronic devices mounted on the pump panel that control engine speed

  • The electronic pressure governor controls engine speed, and raises or lowers it to control water pressure.

  • The mode button is used to switch between controlling the engine’s r.p.m. and controlling the pumps discharge pressure.

  • When in Pressure mode sensors in the pump, will decrease or increase engine speeds to control pressure, rather than to relieve it.

  • In pressure mode EPG gets its signal to increase or decrease r.p.m. through a device known as a pressure transducer, which is mounted in a discharge port in the fire pump and, in turn, regulates the engine speed to maintain a previously set pressure on the EPG at the pump panel. The EPG signal is transmitted by the transducer to the engine, regulating and managing engine speeds – much like cruise control on your car.

  • RPM mode is an electronic throttle only, which regulates the engine speed.

Engine Status Center (ESC)

  • This device is active any time the apparatus engine is running and provides the operator continuously with vital engine information.

  • It will provide audible and visual warning indications for any of the following conditions:-

    • Low oil pressure

    • Check engine

    • Low voltage conditions

    • Stop engine conditions

    • High voltage

    • High engine temperature

Discharge Pressure Gauge

  • Each discharge usually has its own discharge gauge which is smaller in diameter than the master pressure gauge.

  • These smaller discharge gauges measure the pressure at the discharge outlet between the ball valve and the pump panel cover.

Master intake valve

  • Master intake valves are built into your pump and may or may not use a butterfly style valve. These intake valves are provided by the pump manufacturer and are well-protected from outside damage.

  • Unlike external intake valve styles, master intake valves cannot be easily removed for service or replacement. If your master intake valve needs serviced, your entire apparatus must go out of service for the duration of the repair or replacement.

Tank Fill & Tank to Pump

  • The tank-to-pump valve functions differently than the tank fill/recirculating valve.

  • The tank-to-pump valve controls the flow between the water tank and pump inlet. With this valve open, water from the tank floods the pump intake manifold and slowly primes the pump.

  • The tank fill/recirculating valve opens the connection from the discharge side of the pump to the water tank. Open the tank fill valve to refill the water tank from a water source that is connected to an intake fitting.



Thursday June 5th, 2025

Definitions of Terms

  • Appliance: Any wye, siamese, deluge monitor, reducer, adaptor, fitting, or other hardware used with fire hose for delivering water.

  • Back Pressure (Head Pressure): Pressure generated by the weight of a column of water above the pump, calculated at 0.434 psi (3 Kpa) per foot of elevation.

  • Discharge: The quantity of water issuing from an opening, expressed in liters per minute (Lpm).

  • Drafting: Raising water from a static source to supply an engine.

  • Elevation Pressure: Pressure gained or lost due to elevation (10 KPa per meter).

  • Fire Department Connection: Device where a pumper connects to boost water flow in a sprinkler or standpipe system.

  • Flow Pressure: Pressure created by the rate of flow or velocity of water from a discharge opening, measured using a pitot gauge.

  • Force: Measurement of weight expressed in pounds.

  • Friction Loss: Pressure loss due to turbulence of water moving against interior walls of fire hose or appliances.

  • Master Stream: A large caliber hose stream capable of flowing 1350 Lpm or more.

  • Normal Operating Pressure: Pressure on a water system during regular domestic consumption.

  • Nozzle Pressure: Pressure at which water is discharged from a nozzle.

  • Nozzle Reaction: Force directed at a person or device holding a nozzle by the velocity of discharged water.

  • Pitot Gauge: Instrument inserted into a stream to measure the velocity pressure.

  • Pressure: Force per unit area, measured in Kpa.

  • Residual Pressure: The part of total available pressure not used to overcome friction loss or gravity; the pressure remaining when water is flowing.

  • Siamese: Hose appliance that combines two or more lines into one.

  • Static Pressure: Stored potential energy available to force water through fire hose and appliances. Static means at rest or without motion.

  • Velocity: Speed at which water travels through fire hose, measured in feet per second (FPS).

  • Water Hammer: Force created by rapid deceleration of water, generally from closing a nozzle or valve too quickly.

  • Wye: Hose appliance with one inlet and two or more outlets, usually gated.

Principles of Pressure

There are six basic principles of pressure relevant to fire service hydraulics. Driver/operators must understand these principles.

  • 1st Principle: Fluid pressure is perpendicular to any surface on which it acts.

  • 2nd Principle: When a fluid is at rest, fluid pressure is the same in all directions.

  • 3rd Principle: Pressure applied to a confined fluid from without is transmitted equally in all directions.

  • 4th Principle: The pressure at the base of a liquid in an open container is proportional to its depth.- Example: At 1 ft depth - 3 KPa, at 2 ft - 6 KPa, and at 3 ft - 9 KPa.

  • 5th Principle: The pressure of a liquid in an open vessel is proportional to the density of the liquid.- Mercury is 13.55 times denser than water.

    • One inch (25 mm) of mercury creates the same pressure as 13.55 inches (344 mm) of water.

  • 6th Principle: Pressure is the same in different shaped containers with the same cross-section area at the bottom and the same height.

Types of Pressure

  • Atmospheric Pressure: Pressure exerted by the air; at sea level, it is 100 KPa (14.7 psi), considered standard atmospheric pressure.

  • Head Pressure: Refers to the height of a water supply above the discharge orifice; for every 1-meter increase, 10 KPa is gained.

  • Static Pressure: Stored potential energy available to force water through pipes. It exists when water is at rest.

  • Residual Pressure: The pressure remaining after accounting for friction loss or gravity while water flows.

  • Flow Pressure: Forward velocity pressure while water is flowing from a discharge opening.

  • Normal Operating Pressure: Pressure in a water distribution system during normal consumption demands.

  • Elevation Pressure (Gain and Loss): Pressure changes due to the height of a nozzle relative to the pump or water source. Nozzle above pump = pressure loss; nozzle below pump = pressure gain.

Friction Loss

  • Pressure loss in a pipe or hose due to friction.

  • The part of the total pressure lost while forcing water through pipes, fittings, fire hose, and adapters.

Causes of Friction Loss in Fire Hose

  • Movement of water molecules against each other.

  • Lining of fire hose/delaminating hose.

  • Couplings.

  • Sharp bends/kinks.

  • Change in hose size or orifice by adapters.

  • Improper gasket size.

Principles of Friction Loss

  • First Principle: Friction loss varies directly with the length of hose or pipe if all other conditions are the same. Doubling hose length doubles friction loss (at constant Lpm).- Example: 30m of 45mm hose flowing 500 Lpm has 85 KPa friction loss; 60m of 45mm flowing 500 Lpm has 170 KPa friction loss.

  • Second Principle: For hoses of the same size, friction loss varies approximately with the square of the increase in the velocity of the flow.- Example: A length of 77mm hose flowing 800Lpm has a friction loss of 22 KPa. When the flow doubles to 1600Lpm, the friction loss increases four times to 88 KPa. If the original flow is tripled, the friction loss increases nine times.

  • Third Principle: For the same discharge, friction loss varies inversely as the fifth power of the diameter of the hose showing the advantage of larger size hose.- Comparing 77mm (3”) to 100mm (4”):

    • (3)^5 = 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 = 243

    • (4)^5 = 4 x 4 x 4 x 4 x 4 = 1024

    • 243/1024 = 0.24 ≈ 24%, a 76% reduction in friction loss by using a 100mm (4”) hose instead of a 77mm (3”) hose.

    • Smaller hoses create more friction because more water contacts the hose's sides.

  • Fourth Principle: Friction loss is independent of pressure when the Lpm remains constant in the same size hose. If 1000 Lpm is flowing through a 65mm hoseline at 350 KPa, the friction loss remains the same if the pressure increases to 700 KPa.

Applying Friction Loss Principles

  • With water being virtually incompressible, the same volume of water supplied into a fire hose under pressure at one end will be discharged at the other end.

  • Hose diameter determines velocity for a given volume of water.

  • Smaller hose = greater velocity needed to deliver the same volume.

  • Friction loss increases with hose length.

  • Flow pressure is greatest near the supply and lowest at the furthest point.

Reducing Friction Loss

  • Hose length: Reduce length and increase diameter.

  • Hose Diameter: Use a larger diameter hose for longer water supply distances, then reduce to appropriate diameter for the master stream or handline.

  • Sharp Bends (kinks): Minimize by employing proper hose handling techniques.

FIRE HOSE KINKING

  • Kinks in the supply hose are a major issue and can be deadly.

  • Kinks reduce flow and pressure by almost 50 percent.

  • Flake out the hose to prevent kinks when laying supply lines.

  • For small hose lines, pump operator can increase pressure to remove small kinks.

  • For supply lines, you are at the mercy of the hydrant. Firefighters need to ensure that the supply hose is free of kinks to maintain

Thursday, June 12th, 2025



Water Supply to the Pump

Water Supply Overview

  • Every pumping operation starts with a water supply.

  • Ways to get water into the pump:

    • Vehicles on boarda water tank.

    • Static source (pond, river).

    • Pressurized source (hydrant).

    • Relay pumping.

Onboard Water Tank

  • Every fire truck equipped with a pump and hose has an onboard water supply.

  • The size of the onboard water supply depends on departmental/apparatus specifications.

  • Fire engines typically carry between 1300 and 4750 litres of water in the onboard tank.

  • Most typical fire engines carry 1900 to 2850 litres of water.

  • Materials for water tanks include:

    • Copolymer polypropylene.

    • Fiberglass.

    • Steel.

    • Stainless steel.

  • Size and physical dimensions of water tanks are important for the ergonomic design of the vehicle.

Working From The Tank

  • The tank-to-pump valve functions differently from the tank fill/recirculating valve.

  • The tank-to-pump valve controls the flow between the water tank and the pump inlet.

  • When open, water from the tank floods the pump intake manifold and slowly primes the pump.

Apparatus Water Tank Operating Procedure

  1. Engage the pump according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

  2. Confirm the apparatus is in the proper pump gear:

    • Observe the green “okay to pump” light.

    • Note the speedometer.

    • Listen for pump engagement.

    • Confirm 4th gear lock-up.

  3. Exit the cab, chock the wheels, and proceed to the pump panel.

  4. Check that the following three LEDs are illuminated:

    • PUMP ENGAGED

    • OKAY TO PUMP

    • THROTTLE READY

  5. Confirm that the Message Centre Display indicates “MODE”.

  6. Open the TANK TO PUMP valve.

  7. Using the “MODE” switch, place the Electric Pressure Governor in the RPM Mode.

  8. Confirm that the Message Centre Display indicates “THROTTLE” and the corresponding RPM LED is illuminated.

  9. Using the “INC” switch, increase the engine RPM level to between 1000 and 1200 RPM.

  10. Engage the primer to remove trapped air in the pump piping assembly (typically takes 5-10 seconds).

    • Do not engage the primer for longer than 30 seconds.

    • Note an increase in the pump pressure to confirm priming is complete.

  11. Using the “MODE” switch, change the operating mode on the Electric Pressure Governor to the Pressure mode.

  12. Confirm that the Message Centre Display indicates “PRESSURE” and the corresponding PRESSURE LED is illuminated.

  13. Ensure nozzle operators are ready to receive water and slowly open the appropriate discharge valves.

  14. Gradually increase the pump pressure to the required setting using the “INC” switch.

  15. The Electric Pressure Governor will maintain the set pressure by adjusting the engine speed as required.

  16. Additional hose lines can be put into operation as needed.

  17. Ensure the pressure is set for the hose line that needs the highest operating pressure, and gate back all other hose lines to their required pressures.

Working From a Pressurized Source
Pressurized Water Source

  • Pressurized sources can be either hydrants or other pumping apparatus in a relay operation.

Pressurized Source Operating Procedure

  1. Engage the pump according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

  2. Confirm the apparatus is in proper pump gear (observe the green “okay to pump” light, note the speedometer, listen for pump engagement and confirm 4th gear lock up).

  3. Exit the cab, chock the wheels, and proceed to the pump panel.

  4. Check that all three LEDs (PUMP ENGAGED, OKAY TO PUMP, and THROTTLE READY) are illuminated and that the Message Centre Display indicates “MODE”.

  5. Open the air bleeder valve for the master intake valve to ensure all air is removed from the supply line before opening the intake valve.

  6. Open the master intake valve to allow water to enter the pump.

  7. Using the “MODE” switch, change the operating mode on the Electric Pressure Governor to the Pressure mode.

  8. Confirm that the Message Centre Display indicates “PRESSURE” and the corresponding PRESSURE LED is illuminated.

  9. Ensure nozzle operators are ready to receive water and slowly open the appropriate discharge valves.

  10. Gradually increase the pump pressure to the required setting using the “INC” switch.

Drafting Operating Procedure

  1. Engage the pump in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.

  2. Confirm the apparatus has gone into proper pump gear (observe the green “okay to pump” light, note the speedometer, listen for pump engagement and confirm 4th gear lock up).

  3. Exit the cab, chock the wheels, and proceed to the pump panel.

  4. Check and confirm that all three LED’s (PUMP ENGAGED, OKAY TO PUMP, and THROTTLE READY) are illuminated and that the Message Centre Display indicates “MODE”.

  5. Using the “MODE” switch, place the Electric Pressure Governor in the RPM Mode and confirm that the Message Centre Display indicates “THROTTLE” and the corresponding RPM LED is illuminated.

  6. Using the “INC” switch, increase the engine RPM level to between 1000 and 1200 RPM.

  7. Engage the primer in order to remove all the air from the pump casing and suction hose lines. This should allow for water to be pushed into the pump. Note the pump pressure gauge. When the needle stops rising you should have obtained a prime.

  8. Confirm you have obtained a prime by slightly increasing the RPM. If the pump pressure gauge continues to rise you have indeed obtained the prime.

  9. Using the “MODE” switch, change the operating mode on the Electric Pressure Governor to the Pressure mode. Confirm that the Message Centre Display indicates “PRESSURE” and the corresponding PRESSURE LED is illuminated.

  10. Ensure nozzle operators are ready to receive water and slowly open the appropriate discharge valves. Gradually increase the pump pressure to the required setting using the “INC” switch.













Thursday June, 19th



Water Supply

  • Water supply in an urban city is determined by:

    • Engine's pumping capacity.

    • Available water supply.

Hydrant Pressure and Capacity

  • High intake pressure (e.g., 420-700 Kpa) from a hydrant results in a higher rated capacity than the manufacturer's specifications, as it avoids drafting from 10' with 20' of suction hose.

NFPA 291 - Hydrant Color Coding

  • NFPA 291 outlines guidelines for hydrant coloring and minimum LPM (Liters Per Minute) each color-top should provide:

    • Class AA Hydrants: Blue, > 5700 L/min

    • Class A Hydrants: Green, 3800 - 5700 L/min

    • Class B Hydrants: Orange, 1900 - 3800 L/min

    • Class C Hydrants: Red, < 1900 L/min (typically private hydrants, not reliable for fire service)

  • Color-coded reflective rings or painted caps indicate flow rate.

Factors Affecting Available Water Supply

  • Key factors beyond hydrant color that affect expected available water supply:

    • Peak Hours

    • Number of Discharges

    • Supply Hose Utilized

Peak Hours

  • Time of day impacts water supply. "Blue top" hydrant standard (5678 LPM) is set with peak consumption hours in mind.

  • Peak hours (early morning and late evening) see increased consumer demand (showers, cooking), potentially reducing available volume.

Number of Discharges

  • Expected volume from a single hydrant is based on utilizing all discharges (usually 3).

Supply Hose Utilized

  • 4" LDH (Large Diameter Hose) and 2.5" are primary supply hose options. Hose choice significantly affects water supply due to friction loss.

  • 2.5" hose has significantly more friction loss than 4" LDH.

Three Ways to Maximize Flow

  1. Multiple Connections from a Hydrant

    • Pumps often outperform hydrants; adding supply lines from the same hydrant can maximize volume.

  2. Pumping in Series/ Relay Pumping

    • Pumping in series (stacking multiple engines in line, discharge-to-intake) boosts pressure down the line, overcoming friction loss related to volume or distance needs.

    • Relay Pumping is pumping in series to overcome distance.

  3. Hydrant Assist Valve (HAV)

    • 4-way valve connects directly to the hydrant.

    • Primary supply line connects to the front of the HAV, laid towards the structure.

    • A second apparatus connects one supply line to their intake and another to their discharge, acting as a supply engine to "pump the hydrant".

    • This increases pressure to the attack engine. A one-way clapper valve prevents the supply engine from pressurizing the hydrant.

Static and Residual Pressure

  • Static Pressure: Pressure on the pump's intake manifold gauge after hose connection and hydrant opening, before water flow.

  • Residual Pressure: Pressure on the intake manifold gauge when water is flowing from the discharge manifold.

  • Operators use the difference between static and residual pressure to determine additional water availability and fire flow to provide to the incident commander.

Hydrant Potential Chart

  • Compares static pressure to residual pressure to estimate remaining water supply.

  • Percentage Drop = frac{(Static - Residual) \times 100}{Static}

  • 0-10% drop: Additional 3x current flow available

  • 11-15% drop: Additional 2x current flow available

  • 16-25% drop: Additional 1x current flow available

  • 25%+ drop: No more than current flow available

Percentage Method

  • Calculates the percentage drop in pressure between static and residual pressure to estimate remaining water supply.

  • Example: 560 KPa static, 420 KPa residual = 25% drop.

  • 0-10% = 3X initial target flow

  • 11-15% = 2X initial target flow

  • 16-25% = Same as initial target flow

  • In the example above, you would have roughly another 3500 LPM available for firefighting operations

Nozzles

  • Pump operators must know the flow rate and pressure needed for each nozzle on their truck (hand line, ground monitor, aerial device nozzle).

  • Figures are printed on nozzles or in manufacturer's documentation.

Pressure and Flow Rate Importance

  • Pressure impacts hose reach/penetration, ease of use, maneuverability, control, and overall performance.

  • Incorrect pressure prevents the nozzle from delivering the specified flow rate.

  • Proper flow and pressure are needed to combat heat release rates (HRR).

Flow Rate Standards (NFPA 1710 - 2020 Edition)

  • Typical 2000 sq ft, two-story single-family home (no basement/exposures): 1140 lpm (300 gpm) from two handlines

  • Open-air Strip Shopping Center: 1892 lpm (500 gpm) from three handlines

  • Typical 1200 sq ft apartment (three-story garden style): 1140 lpm (300 gpm) from three handlines

  • High-Rise (>75 ft): 1892 lpm (500 gpm) from two handlines on the fire floor, 946 lpm (250 gpm) on the floor above the fire

  • Pump operators should be aware of required flow rate based on fire size and HRR upon arrival.

Pressure and Flow Rates Examples

  • HANDLINES/HOSE PACK:

    • 45 mm FOG: 570 L/min at 350 kPa

    • 65 mm FOG: 950 L/min at 350 kPa

    • 100 mm SMOOTH BORE: 3800 L/min at 350 kPa

  • MERCURY MASTER:

    • 29mm / 1½" NOZZLE: 1003 L/min at 560 kPa

    • 50mm/2" NOZZLE: 3800 L/min at 550 kPa



Hose Testing

  • Service testing ensures hose is maintained in optimum condition and functions under pressure during firefighting.

  • Guidelines in NFPA 1962: "Standard for the Care, Use, and Service Testing of Fire Hose including Couplings and Nozzles".

Safety During Testing

  • Helmet and safety gloves must be worn at all times.

  • Hose and couplings inspected before testing.

  • Personnel must not stand in front of the free end or straddle the hose.

  • Test pressures are not to exceed 2070kPa.

  • All hose to be carried on apparatus vehicles must be Service Tested annually.

Inspection Procedures - Hose

  • Physical inspection checks for debris, mildew, rot, chemical damage, burns, cuts, abrasion, and vermin.

  • Hose failing inspection is removed from service, repaired/tested, or condemned.

Inspection Procedures - Couplings

  • Visual inspection for:

    • Damaged threads

    • Corrosion

    • Slippage on the hose at the coupling

    • Out of round

    • Swivel not rotating freely

    • Missing lugs

    • Loose external collar

    • Deterioration of gaskets

    • Other defects that impair operation

  • Defective couplings are removed and repaired/replaced.

JPR - Hose Testing Steps

  1. Check hose and gasket for damage (5.5.5)

  2. Connect test gate valve (if required), hose sections, and nozzle/shut-off valve using a spanner wrench (5.5.5 (B-1))

  3. Notify pump operator to fill and pressurize each hose line to 350 kPa (50 psi) or hydrant pressure (5.5.5)

  4. Open nozzle/valve above pump discharge to bleed air from the line (5.5.5 (B-1))

  5. Mark the hose against the coupling with chalk/pencil (5.5.5 (B-1))

  6. Close test gate valve and notify pump operator to increase pressure to test pressure per NFPA 1962 (2070 kPa / 300 psi for attack hose) (5.5.5 (B-1))

  7. Check connections for leakage as pressure increases (5.5.5)

  8. Check hose jacket and couplings for damage/leakage, maintaining test pressure for 3 minutes (5.5.5)

  9. Notify pump operator to slowly reduce pressure, close each discharge valve, and disengage pump (5.5.5 (B-1))

  10. Open nozzle to bleed off pressure and disconnect all couplings (5.5.5 (B-1))

  11. Check marks on the hose to ensure coupling did not move, and notify an Officer (Evaluator) of the test results (5.5.5 (B-1))