20th Century US History Notes
World War I:
Began in 1914, triggered by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and lasted until 1918; a global conflict fought primarily in Europe.
German submarines, like U-boats, engaged in unrestricted submarine warfare, sinking civilian and merchant ships. The sinking of the Lusitania in 1915, a British passenger liner carrying American citizens, increased pressure on the US to enter the war. The Zimmerman telegram in 1917, in which Germany proposed an alliance with Mexico against the US, further inflamed American public opinion.
President Wilson's Fourteen Points, articulated in 1918, presented a vision for a just and lasting peace. Key principles included:
Self-determination for nations: The idea that national groups should have the right to form their own independent countries.
A League of Nations to provide a forum for resolving international disputes and preventing future wars.
The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, officially ended WWI but was far more punitive than Wilson's vision. It imposed heavy reparations on Germany, redrew European maps, and created new nations, but in ways that arguably sowed the seeds for future conflicts due to unresolved ethnic and national tensions.
Post-War Anxiety and the Red Scare:
The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in 1917 instilled fear of communism and anarchism spreading to the US, fueled by labor unrest and bombings.
The Palmer Raids, conducted under Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer in 1919-1920, were a series of aggressive and controversial law enforcement actions targeting suspected radicals, leftists, and immigrants. These raids involved widespread arrests and deportations, often without due process, marking a period of significant civil liberties violations.
Consumer Culture and Economic Shifts:
The Roaring Twenties saw an explosion of consumer culture driven by mass production, buying on credit, and sophisticated advertising that created desires for new products and leisure activities.
Disposable income increased for many Americans, and installment plans made larger purchases like cars and appliances more accessible, contributing to an unprecedented level of consumer debt.
Harlem Renaissance:
Centered in Harlem, New York City, this was a significant flowering of African American culture in the 1920s and 1930s. It challenged racial stereotypes, celebrated black identity, and laid the groundwork for the Civil Rights Movement.
Langston Hughes' poem "I Too" asserted black Americans' right to equality and belonging, reflecting the aspirations and frustrations of African Americans during this era.
The Lost Generation:
This term refers to writers and artists who felt disillusioned after World War I, rejecting traditional values and questioning nationalism and authority. Many expatriated to Europe, particularly Paris.
Authors like Ernest Hemingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald explored themes of loss, alienation, and the moral vacuum they perceived in postwar society, capturing the sense of a generation adrift.
The Automobile's Impact:
The automobile provided unprecedented personal mobility, especially for young people, transforming socializing, dating, and travel patterns. It fostered a sense of independence and freedom.
It spurred the growth of new industries like gas stations, motels, and diners along newly constructed highways, and fueled suburban expansion, reshaping the American landscape.
Prohibition:
The Eighteenth Amendment, ratified in 1919, banned the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcohol, leading to a boom in organized crime, bootlegging, and speakeasies (illegal bars).
It undermined respect for the law as many Americans flouted the ban, and was eventually repealed by the Twenty-First Amendment in 1933.
Scopes Trial:
Also known as the Scopes Monkey Trial, this 1925 trial symbolized the cultural clash between traditional religious views (creationism) and modern scientific ideas (Darwin's evolution), highlighting divisions in American society.
Nativism and Immigration Restrictions:
The National Origins Act of 1924 reflected nativist sentiments, severely restricting immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe and favoring Northern and Western Europeans. It aimed to preserve a narrow, Anglo-Saxon Protestant idea of American identity and discriminated against immigrants based on their national origin.
Jazz:
Jazz emerged from black communities in New Orleans and other cities and became a popular American cultural phenomenon, crossing racial lines and contributing significantly to the mainstream. It represented innovation, improvisation, and a break from traditional musical forms.
The Great Depression and the New Deal
Stock Market Crash of 1929:
The crash on Black Tuesday, October 29, 1929, triggered a chain reaction of bank failures, business closures, and massive unemployment, shattering the optimism of the 1920s and plunging the US into the Great Depression.
The Dust Bowl:
A combination of severe drought and poor farming practices, such as over-plowing, led to an environmental and economic catastrophe in the Great Plains during the 1930s. Massive dust storms destroyed crops and forced many farmers (Okies) to migrate west to California in search of work, facing further hardship and discrimination.
The New Deal:
President Franklin D. Roosevelt's response to the Great Depression aimed at:
Relief for the suffering: Providing direct assistance to the unemployed and impoverished.
Recovery for the economy: Implementing programs to stimulate economic growth.
Reform to prevent future crises: Enacting legislation to regulate the financial system and protect workers' rights.
Key programs included:
: National Industrial Recovery Act, to regulate industry and promote fair competition (later declared unconstitutional).
: Works Progress Administration, created jobs in construction, infrastructure, and the arts, employing millions of Americans.
Social Security Act: Provided retirement income, unemployment benefits, and aid to families with dependent children, fundamentally changing the government's role in citizens' lives and establishing a welfare state.
Documentation of the Depression through photos and personal stories, like those of Dust Bowl survivors such as Grace, captured the human impact of the crisis, raising awareness and garnering support for government intervention.
Cesar Chavez's Early Life:
Chavez's experiences with poverty, discrimination, and exploitation as a child migrant worker during the Depression era shaped his later activism and fueled his lifelong fight for farmworkers' rights.
World War II
Lend-Lease Act:
The act allowed the US to provide military aid (arms, equipment, and supplies) to Allied countries fighting Germany and Japan without requiring immediate payment. This arrangement, initially benefiting Great Britain, signaled a move away from strict neutrality and positioned the US as the "arsenal of democracy."
Pearl Harbor:
The devastating surprise attack by Japan on the US naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on December 7, 1941, resulted in significant loss of life and destruction of US battleships. This event ended the debate about US involvement in WWII and unified the country behind a common cause, leading to a formal declaration of war against Japan.
The Pacific Strategy:
The island-hopping strategy involved selectively attacking and capturing key islands in the Pacific to establish a path to Japan, bypassing heavily fortified areas. The Battle of Midway was a crucial turning point in the Pacific theater.
Midway: In June 1942, the US Navy decisively defeated Japan, sinking four Japanese aircraft carriers after having successfully cracked Japanese naval codes. This victory halted Japanese expansion, crippled the Japanese fleet, and gave the US a strategic advantage in the Pacific.
The Home Front:
Rosie the Riveter symbolized the millions of women who entered the workforce in large numbers during WWII, filling jobs previously held by men. This shift challenged traditional gender roles and demonstrated women's capabilities in various fields.
Executive Order 8802 sought to prevent discrimination in defense jobs based on race, creed, color, or national origin, while Executive Order 9066 led to the internment of Japanese Americans, illustrating a contradiction between progress towards equality and the persistence of prejudice and fear. Many Japanese lost their homes and businesses because of these orders.
More than Japanese Americans (most of whom were American citizens) were forcibly moved from their homes to internment camps, where they were held under harsh conditions. This action was later deemed unjust and unconstitutional.
Propaganda and rationing shaped daily life and promoted patriotism, encouraging sacrifice for the war effort. Americans conserved resources, bought war bonds, and participated in scrap drives to support the troops.
Atomic Bombs:
The decision to drop atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 remains a subject of intense ethical and historical debate.
Supporters argued it ended the war quickly, preventing a costly invasion of Japan and saving American lives. Critics cite the horrific civilian casualties, the devastating long-term effects of radiation, and question the morality of using such destructive weapons.
The Cold War and the 1950s
Containment Policy:
The US aimed to prevent the spread of communism through various strategies:
The Truman Doctrine, announced in 1947, committed the US to providing military and economic aid to countries resisting communist pressure, particularly Greece and Turkey.
The Marshall Plan, initiated in 1948, invested billions of dollars in rebuilding Western Europe's economies to promote stability, prevent communist influence, and create markets for American goods.
The Berlin Blockade and Airlift: In 1948-1949, the US and its allies responded to the Soviet blockade of West Berlin by airlifting supplies for almost a year, demonstrating Western resolve and successfully thwarting Soviet efforts to isolate the city.
NATO: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, formed in 1949, is a military alliance based on collective defense, in which an attack on one member is considered an attack on all. It was designed to deter Soviet aggression and maintain security in Europe.
The phrase "Iron Curtain" (coined by Churchill) was used to describe the Soviet sphere of influence and the political, military, and ideological barrier that divided Europe into communist and non-communist blocs.
Korean War:
The Korean War (1950-1953) began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, led by the US, intervened to defend South Korea. The war ended in a stalemate at the 38th parallel, with Korea remaining divided. It was the first major proxy war of the Cold War, highlighting the global struggle between communism and democracy.
The Red Scare and McCarthyism:
Intense fear of communist infiltration and subversion led to blacklisting, loyalty oaths, and aggressive investigations by HUAC (House Un-American Activities Committee) and Senator Joseph McCarthy. Accusations were often based on flimsy evidence and ruined careers.
The "Hollywood Ten" refers to a group of writers and directors who were blacklisted and faced imprisonment for invoking their Fifth Amendment rights during a hearing with the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). They refused to answer questions about their political affiliations, protesting the committee's tactics.
Suburbanization and Consumerism:
The postwar economy boomed, leading to suburban growth fueled by the GI Bill (providing benefits to veterans), affordable housing (like Levittown), and car ownership. The emphasis on consumer goods transformed American society.
Planned obsolescence, a business strategy of designing products with a limited lifespan, encouraged continuous consumption and the purchase of new items, contributing to a throwaway culture.
The Feminine Mystique:
Betty Friedan's 1963 book