International Politics Final
Lecture 6: International and Non-governmental Organizations
key concepts
multilateralism - cooperation between three or more states
global governance
work together to address problems that transcend national boundaries
cooperative and voluntary
eg. the environment, it affects all countries in the world and what countries do affect other countries in relation to the environment
what are international organizations
groups of actors, organizations, or states that voluntarily come together across national boundaries to work together toward a unified goal (common problems)
voluntary, cross-national boundaries, cooperative
what are the different types of international organizations
intergovernmental organizations (IGOs)
associations of states that come together to solve problems and are bound by a treaty
UN, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, League of Nations (previously)
they seek to solve problems such as economic issues, climate, war, migration, terrorism, famine
they reduce uncertainty, it is easier to predict what countries will do because they have allies, communication, and rules
countries are not operating in isolation
manages political conflicts
creates interdependency
creates a sense of shared identity and common purpose among states
why do they form?
transnational problems require transnational solutions
no one state has the power, authority, or capability to solve any of them alone
they are not a global or international government, there is no centralized governing authority that has the final say
when countries join IGOs, they retain sovereignty, but they give up some sovereignty because they are entering a treaty with rules
what are the drawbacks to IGOs
lack of governmental power over other member states - sovereignty
powerful states still dominate from the inside
NATO
collective security alliance with 31 countries
an attack on one is an attack on all
UN
founded in 1945 with the goal of maintaining global peace and security through international cooperation, currently composed of 193 member states with voting power
funded by voluntary donations by member states
they work with NGOs
many successes such as decolonizing territories, sexual violence as a war crime, supplying 45% of the world’s vaccines to children, and providing aid to displaced persons across the globe
but many failures such as the genocide in Rwanda in 1994, the IMF has made global south economies worse, spreading of cholera in Haiti in 2010, and they failed to prevent Russia from invading Ukraine
non-governmental organizations
associations of private citizens (not politicians or government-related)
they do not enter treaties or other international agreements, and do not receive money from any government (this allows them to do work that will not jeopardize their funding)
human rights watch, green peace, amnesty international, red cross, doctors without borders
how do NGOs help IGOs
NGOs do much of the on-the-ground work (peacekeepers, vaccinations (UN provides funding for the vaccines but Doctors Without Borders might be the ones going around giving the vaccines), etc.)
sharing professional expertise
they can work as an extension of the UN but do things that the UN could not do for risk of losing public funding, while NGOs rely on private funding
gather data and produce reports of what is happening on the ground
policy development
legitimacy of iGOs among civil society so that they are in some way connected to the people of the world
how do IGOs help NGOs
provide a global platform to push their agenda
provides networking opportunities that can increase an NGOs resources (world conferences)
provide legitimacy to the NGO in the eyes of the state, as well as provide legitimacy to an issue in the eyes of the state
IGOs can put pressure on states on behalf of an NGO
boomerang effect
mutually beneficial relationship
NGO
IGO
created by individuals
created and joined by governments
make own decisions
collective decisions
directly influence international laws
multi-national corporations
companies that are headquartered in one nation but have divisions in other countries
Apple, McDonald’s, Amazon, etc.
norms - shared expectations, standards, rules, and/or laws that shape state behavior
formal - laws, rules, regulations, treaties, constitutions
informal - standards of behavior, beliefs, diplomatic standards, cultural expectations
norm congruence
the degree of alignment or consistency between international norms and a state’s existing domestic norms, laws, and practices
norm localization
the process by which international norms are adapted or localized to fit the specific cultural, political, and legal characteristics of a particular state or activity
norms can take a top-down OR a bottom-up approach
constructivist approaches to studying IGOs and NGOs
very interested in how and why international organizations behave
how do IO norms (cultural, legal, social, etc.) influence state behavior
universal declaration of human rights heavily influenced newly made constitutions post-colonization
capitalism and liberalism
US neoliberal economic norms → World Bank Organization → domestic economies that had to change to fit the original US norms in order for the WBO to aid them financially
how do domestic norms (cultural, legal, social, etc.) influence IOs
Lecture 8: Conflict and Security
the study of international relations aims to analyze the behavior of states, understand the causes of global events, and develop theories to explain what is happening. Initiated by the desire to prevent war.
war makes states, and states make war (Charles Tilly)
based on European state formation
need to raise revenue for state expansion and survival (war)
taxes
bureaucracies
strong central institutions
nationalism, citizenship, identity
war in IR
war shapes society - society shapes war
war changes across space and time, but its existence is a historical constant
war has long-lasting consequences
types of conflict
interstate conflict or international war - war between two or more states
armed warfare
proxy wars - indirect conflict with another country, using other countries to fight a war for them (US with Taliban, Vietnam, Korean War)
cybersecurity
trade wars
tariffs - specific taxes imposed on imports from foreign countries
sanctions
intrastate conflict or civil war - conflicts involving the police, military, or other government groups persecuting the country’s own citizens
civil war with the state
war of secession
war of succession
other types of conflict
terrorist or criminal organizations
state-sanctioned violence (police, military, etc. against its own people, genocide)
why has interstate conflict lessened?
spread of democracy and democratic peace theory
International cooperation and organizations (UN, NATO, etc.)
nuclear weapons
spread of free trade
changing characteristics of conflict
last longer - more protracted
harder to resolve
countries can fall into the conflict trap (incidence of civil war → institutions are eroded → rebellion becomes more feasible → loops)
trends leading to more civil conflict
more than one insurgency in the same country
international backing of armed groups
rebel groups are sustaining themselves through organized crime
climate change
war = development in reverse
loss of lives
loss of infrastructure (roads, bridges, telecommunications)
scarcity of basic resources (health, food, water, housing, etc.)
less investment in the future, domestic and foreign
increase of lawlessness, promotes a culture of violence and militarization
types of violence
direct violence - use of physical force or the threat of physical force
the most visible and straightforward concept of violence
carried out by the state, groups of people, within the family, etc.
aims to harm people and/or property
examples
military attacks
sexual or gender-based violence
land grabs
hate crimes
structural violence - violence that results from unequal social, economic, and political structures
lack of equality in education, health services, jobs, and other basic needs
less visible
systemic - perpetuates throughout institutions, laws, policies, and economic systems
leads to long-term suffering and deprivation
examples
formal laws and practices - apartheid or segregation
informal practices - limited access to healthcare, safe and affordable housing, education, jobs, etc., for marginalized groups
cultural violence - the existence of prevailing or prominent social norms that make direct and structural violence seem ‘natural’ or ‘right’ or at least acceptable
attitudes, values, beliefs, and norms that make structural and direct violence acceptable, inevitable, natural, and right
hegemony - how elites maintain power, making these imbalances seem natural
these uphold the structural violence, which then upholds the direct violence
types of security
global security - maintaining security through interconnectedness and diplomacy
military and diplomatic measures that nations and international organizations take to ensure mutual safety and security
eliminate root causes of international conflict
bring stability, certainty, and peace to international relations among states
state security
state is the principal actor
focus on economic, territorial, and military resources
national security is often by ideas of sovereignty:
ability to protect a nation and its institutions from outside threats
controls its borders
have supreme authority over its domestic matters
in traditional notions of global and national security, the state is supposed to protect its citizens from threats and uphold their security — but many states are the source of insecurity for their citizens
human security
a multi-sectoral approach to security that gives primacy to the people
civilian is the central concern
human security entails:
freedom from fear (threats of physical violence and repression), freedom from want (basic human needs), freedom to live in dignity (equal opportunity to pursue potential)
human security exposes the myth that to securitize a state, we need more military power and weaponry
large parts of the world are deeply entrenched in insecurity
current strategies rooted in military power are ill-equipped and ill-adapted for addressing such insecurity
war causes more war, violence causes more violence, reverse development
Lecture 9: Peace
The Study of Peace in Political Science
emerged out of the subfield of international relations
peace, conflict, and security studies
seeks to understand conflict prevention
causes of conflict (direct, structural, cultural, and environmental)
preventing, ending, and transforming violent conflict through nonviolent means
social change (what is necessary to change the conditions of the world)
individual, local, national, and international
institutional, cultural, structural, and environmental
these can happen before, during, and after conflict
Positive and Negative Peace
negative peace is the absence of direct violence or fear of violence
limited understanding of violence and security
keeps pre-existing structures of power intact
positive peace is the creation and sustaining of peaceful societies through attitudes, institutions, and structures
centers peace instead of violence
lack of open conflict is not the only determinant of peace
it is located in everyday life down to the individual and communities
sustainability, long-term stability, and peace
Conceptualizing Peace
what do we mean by peace?
what are the causes of conflict?
what are the solutions to conflict?
what does it take to obtain sustainable peace?
Liberal Peace
International cooperation
democratic peace theory
rooted in Western values of liberalism
Post-colonial Criticisms of Liberal Peace
fails to consider the role that colonialism played in the causes of war and also the solution that leads to peace
culturally insensitive
replicating colonial hegemony
perpetuates racism and classism
Feminist Critiques of Liberal Peace
causes and solutions to conflict are rooted in masculine perspectives and logics
gender blindness
it’s not taking into consideration a lot of complex layers to peace and security for women
male-dominated peace processes
lack of intersectionality
masculine conceptions of security (militarization)
Marxist Critiques of Liberal Peace
doesn’t adequately address the role of class struggle in both conflict and peace
democracy does not ensure security
capitalism perpetuates inequality and exploitation, which leads to more conflict
United Nations Charter
seeks to prevent the “outbreak, escalation, continuation, and recurrence of conflict.”
address the root causes of conflict
assist parties involved in the conflict to end hostilities to “save succeeding generations from the scourge of war.”
Norms
how do we see peace play out in formal and informal norms
liberal norms from countries that are not at traditional war inform the UN, which pushes those norms onto countries that those norms should not be pushed onto
Hybrid Peace
coexistence of different forms of peace
understanding that peace may look different in different countries and contexts
requires interaction between global and local
agency at the state and community level
Illiberalism and Peace
how the crisis of liberalism affects peace
failure of the liberal international community to respond to complex crises
authoritarian governments in the international community are significant players
authoritarian governments claiming victor’s peace (military victory vs peace agreements)
post-conflict settings operating under authoritarian regimes
Peacemaking - the diplomatic actions that are taken to resolve conflict, peace negotiations, and agreements
Peacekeeping - process of providing security and peace-building support as countries are making the transition from conflict to peace
led by the UN
Peacebuilding - the comprehensive and long-term process aimed at preventing and/or ending conflict and fostering sustainable peace
it is the actual process of creating a peaceful society
peace must be constructed
working with communities, governments, and individuals to address the drivers of conflict
requires relationship-building and cooperation among people, institutions, and governments
requires contextual and historical understanding of those drivers of conflict
What is sustainable peace?
peace and stability that is enduring and resilient
seeks to end the cycle of violence indefinitely
peace across time and space
multi-sector and all-encompassing
Lecture 10: Human Rights and Humanitarian Intervention
What are human rights?
fundamental rights and liberties that every person is entitled to from birth to death
universal (everyone has them), inalienable (cannot be taken away), indivisible (cannot have one right without the others), independent, and interrelated
Human rights at the UN and liberalism
core tenants of how human rights are constructed at the UN: universal, individualism, progressive (they keep improving and moving forward), freedom, equality
Negative Rights vs. Positive Rights (Civil Liberties vs. Civil Rights)
negative: the right to be free from something, the government or another person have to not interfere with your human rights
right to life, a government cannot interfere and take the right to life
freedom from torture
freedom of assembly
positive: rights that the government has to ensure are there; they provide the right
right to food
right to safe and affordable housing
right to healthcare
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
adopted in 1948 in Paris
sets a common standard for all people and all nations
lays out fundamental human rights to be universally protected
not legally binding
what purpose does it serve if it is not legally binding?
serves as a framework
symbol of cooperation
moral and political commitment to specific values, goals, and objectives
promotes international norms by raising awareness and shaping global policy-making (newer constitutions)
encourages member states to adopt such values, goals, and objectives in national policy
flexibility for implantation at the state level
international bill of human rights
contains the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
the international covenants are legally binding if ratified
there are two different covenants because either fits into the two different ideologies found in the Cold War era, socialism vs capitalism
Civil Rights vs Human Rights
human rights are rights acquired by being alive and human; they are universal and cannot be taken away
civil rights are obtained by being a legal member of a community or a citizen of a state
right to vote in a particular country
they can be taken away, though ideally through due process
we all have human rights, but each country has its own set of civil rights
Cultural Relativism
you cannot compare cultures against each other
assessing a culture within its own context and history
human rights should be understood and applied in a way that takes into account the cultural, social, and historical context of a particular society
definitions and interpretations of human rights can vary from culture to culture
there is no one-size-fits-all standard for human rights
Relative Universality
human rights are universal; however, the application of those rights will vary from culture to culture
Human Rights as an Imperial Practice
the idea that there is a way to be civilized and right
does not respect cultural and historical contexts
tool for intervention and military action
Western morality is superior
Human Rights as Norms, Top-Down Approach
Humanitarian Intervention
the use of military force or other forms of intervention by one or more states or international organizations to protect the human rights and well-being of people within another state, often in response to instances of severe human rights abuses or humanitarian crises
protect civilians when the government is unable or unwilling
Non-Intervention vs Intervention
International cooperation rests on the idea of sovereignty and non-intervention in domestic affairs
what happens when states are the violators of massive human rights?
Right to Protect
applies to four violations of international human rights law, with approval of the UN Security Council
genocide
war crimes
ethnic cleansing
crimes against humanity
responsibility to protect
it is the primary responsibility of the state to protect its population from the four crimes
it is also the state's responsibility to protect against this incitement from another source within its borders
it is the international community’s responsibility to assist and encourage states to fulfill their responsibility to protect by helping to address and prevent these crimes
It is the international community’s responsibility to take timely and decisive action to protect populations from the four crimes through diplomatic, humanitarian, and other peaceful means (doing so without creating more violence)
Lecture 11: Forced Migration
Forced vs Voluntary Migration
voluntary
choosing to move for economic improvement
education
family
forced
compelled to move by cultural factors
exile
persecution
war
slavery
there is a lot of overlap between the two
What is a stateless person?
someone who, under the law, is not being recognized as a citizen of anywhere
What is a refugee?
someone who has been forced to leave their country due to a well-founded fear of persecution, which they have proved in the eyes of the country they are fleeing to
What is an asylum seeker?
an individual who is seeking international protection and whose claim for refugee status has not yet been decided
1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees
establishes an international legal definition of refugee
crossing over international borders
their government is unwilling or incapable of protecting them
they are fleeing prosecution
outlines legal protection, rights, and assistance that a refugee is entitled to receive
only applies to refugees before 1951, aka WW2, and events in Europe
1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees
amendment of the 1951 convention
removes geographic and time-based limitations, it now applies to everyone
universal protection for all people fleeing conflict and persecution
Guiding Principles of These Documents
universal
free from persecution (human right)
non-refusal (countries cannot turn away refugees; they must at least go through the process of asylum-seeking, and governments cannot return those refugees to their original state unless it’s an issue of national security)
provides fundamental rights for the well-being of refugees
IDPs
internally displaced persons
flee their homes for the same reasons as refugees, but they do not cross an international border
what are some of the reasons people might not leave the country
physical limitations
economic resources
children, elderly, sick persons who would have to be left behind
they are not given the rights and resources that a refugee is given
Diaspora
the movement, migration, or scattering of a people away from an established or ancestral homeland
Deterrence
countries do not really want migrants most of the time, so they’re going to create obstacles and loopholes that allow them to reject citizenship or safety as many migrants as possible
Migration as a Gender Equality Issue
reasons for migration
fleeing for safety with children in hand, for example
resources for migration
women tend to have less access to records, IDs, titles of ownership, menstruation products, and less financial power, especially if there are children involved
gendered experiences in migration
heightened chance of sexual violence while migrating
different health needs, especially if the woman is pregnant
education needs
resettlement needs
different financial needs and difficulty for women to prove ownership of property
deterrence policy
militarization of borders, which increases insecurity of women, especially in terms of physical and sexual violence
data collection
there needs to be data collected in a gender-specific way, and there is often not
without gender-specific data, there cannot be proper policy made without that knowledge
Lecture 12: Environment
Globalization and the Environment
pros
local ideas on environmental responsibility traveling across borders and communities, norm diffusion
greater accessibility to more resources, finances, knowledge, and technology
development and sharing of sustainable technology
increased understanding of how climate affects the globe (information sharing)
global collaboration
economic development (Green Finance, international treaties, green technology demands)
civil society mobilization
cons
high consumption rates
increased carbon footprint
resource depletion
supply chain complexity (emissions and energy consumption)
unequal impact (increased disparities between Global North and Global South)
civil society / political polarization
direct causes (direct result → climate change)
greenhouse gas emissions
fossil fuel burning
deforestation
methane and nitrous oxide emissions
agriculture, livestock, and fertilizers
industry
manufacturing (cement and steel)
fishing
indirect causes (intermediate steps between the actual action and climate change)
population growth and urbanization
land use changes and sprawl
increased consumption (capitalism)
natural processes, the environment will constantly change, and there are always things that will cause the environment to change that base level has nothing to do with humans
deficient environmental policies
climate feedback loops (warming temps reduce snow cover, which increases warming temps)
UN Conference on the Environment: Earth Summit Agenda 21
1992 - Rio de Janeiro
non-binding, but still have a tremendous impact
agenda for the UN, multilateral organizations, and governments to achieve sustainable development by 2000
Kyoto Protocol
1997 - first legally binding international climate treaty
calling on industrial nations to significantly reduce their greenhouse gas emissions
biggest collective step to slow climate change at the time
37 industrial nations that needed to reduce their emissions, the Global South did not need to reduce their emissions but instead received money for sustainable and environmentally friendly economic development
Paris Climate Agreement
limit global warming to 1.5-2 degrees Celsius
every five years, countries report on their progress to slow climate change and work toward net zero emissions
this is for everyone, including the Global South, if they agree to it
Framing
how can you get more people to join you, and how can you convince governments to join you
Theoretical Perspectives
realism - countries will do this and move towards environmental standards around their best interests; they would say that the best way to move forward is to make sure individual countries can keep their power in check and there is a benefit for them
liberalism - we have to come together and collaborate in the UN with collective efforts
constructivism - we need to change the norms and values surrounding environmental policies to move towards better Environmental standards
post-colonial - mining and exploitation happened colonization, and many countries still rely on that economy to survive; the political instability in post-colonial countries is going to make it harder to live up to environmental standards, environmental racism
feminism - environmental resources are a gendered issue, water, women take care of the house oftentimes, they need to make sure they have safe and clean water for their children; women have different health needs in terms of water and hygiene, climate migration
Climate Migration
how does climate change increase forced migration?
it does, a lot
Lecture 13: Development, Poverty, and Security
What is Development?
development is the multidimensional undertaking to achieve a higher quality of life for all people
economic, political, social, cultural, and environmental development
interdependent and mutually reinforcing components of sustainable development, cannot have one without the rest
What is International Development?
looks at improving the lives of individuals worldwide, economically, socially, culturally, politically, and environmentally
the pursuit of a better world for all by eliminating poverty, discrimination, and injustice
largely focused on understanding and addressing problems in the Global South countries
Orthodox Approaches to Development
embedded with neo-liberal (economic, capitalistic liberalism) ideas of capitalism, privatization, and free-market economies
often seen as the need to develop robust economic systems
how we understand a problem and its solutions revolve around material needs
What are material needs?
food, clothing, cars, education, money, movement, hygiene, exercise, shelter, income
New Approaches to Development
focus on individuals and communities meeting their material and nonmaterial needs
nonmaterial needs are aspects of well-being that go beyond the physical necessities: mental health care, bodily security, self-esteem, living in a healthy environment
justice, participation, empowerment, and sustainability, goes beyond the economic part
What is Sustainable Development?
meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
present and future-oriented, holistic, progress and preservation
Sustainable Development Goals (2015-2030)
goal 1: no poverty
what is poverty?
poverty is not having enough money or access to resources to enjoy a decent standard of living
absolute poverty - individuals or families cannot meet basic needs for survival (food, clean water, shelter, healthcare, education)
relative poverty - individuals or families have considerably less income or resources compared to the average in their society
goal objective: to eliminate poverty in all its forms everywhere
poverty is multidimensional and not merely a lack of income
SDGs aim to tackle poverty's various root causes and consequences, encompassing both material and non-material aspects of well-being
goal 2: zero hunger
end hunger
achieve food security and improved nutrition
food security is when all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to meet dietary needs and food resources for an active and healthy life
food insecurity: 1 in 9 people are undernourished, 75% of hunger is living in rural areas (primarily Africa and Asia), 20% are migrants, 70% are women
promote sustainable agriculture
there is enough food to feed the world; there is no global shortage of food, but a global lack of access to food
food supply chain
the sequence of processes and activities involved in producing and consuming food
agricultural production → processing and packaging → storage and distribution → retail, markets, restaurants → consumption → waste management