ncert-class-6-history-chapter-4

The Vedas are among the oldest literary sources in world history.
There are four Vedas: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda.
- Rigveda is the oldest, composed approximately 3500 years ago.
- Contains over a thousand hymns (sukta) in praise of deities.
Notable deities in the hymns include:
- Agni: god of fire.
- Indra: warrior god.
- Soma: a plant used to make a special drink.
Hymns were composed by sages (rishis) with emphasis on oral tradition; priests taught the recitation of these hymns, primarily composed and learned by men, with a few by women.
The Rigveda is written in old or Vedic Sanskrit, which differs from the modern form taught today.

The story introduces Mary's first visit to the library, where she learns about the Vedas.
The library contains a collection of special books on various religions including the Vedas.

Sanskrit is part of the Indo-European language family.
- Shares common words with various other languages:
  - Indian languages: Assamese, Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri, Sindhi.
  - Asian languages: Persian.
  - European languages: English, French, German, Greek, Italian, Spanish.
Comparison of the word 'mother':
- Sanskrit: matr, Hindi: ma, English: mother.
Other language families in India include:
- Tibeto-Burman family (Northeast Indian languages).
- Dravidian family (Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam).
- Austro-Asiatic family (languages in Jharkhand and parts of central India).

Historians also analyze written sources along with material remains to learn about the past.
Some hymns in the Rigveda exist in dialogue form, such as a hymn by sage Vishvamitra conversing with rivers, regarded as goddesses.

Excerpt from the hymn:
- Rivers are compared to swift horses and shining cows.
- Emphasizes Indra's power and the rivers' dedication to their paths.
Analysis: This hymn indicates a society valuing horses and cows, pointing to their significance in daily life and culture.

The Rigveda contains abundant prayers for:
- Cattle, children, and horses.
- Horses were utilized in chariots for warfare.
Wars were fought for cattle, land, water, and people.
Wealth accumulated from conquests was distributed among leaders, priests, and society for yajnas (sacrifices).
- Offerings included ghee, grain, and sometimes animals.

There was no standing army; leaders were elected in assemblies, often military men.
People were described based on work, language, community, and culture:
- Brahmins (priests) and Rajas.
- Rajas did not possess characteristics of later organized kings—no armies, taxes, etc.
- Sons did not automatically inherit titles.

Terms for community include jana and vish, leading to terms like vaishya.
Descriptions included Aryas (self-identified) and Dasas/Dasyus (those who did not perform sacrifices).
- Dasas later referred to as slaves, captured during conflicts.

Introduction to megaliths:
- Megaliths were large stone markers for burial sites, dating back around 3000 years.
- Found across regions like the Deccan, South India, Northeast, and Kashmir.
Archaeological aspects of megaliths:
- Burials often accompanied by Black and Red Ware pots, iron tools, and sometimes horse remains.
Examination of burial practices gives insights into social differences.

Grave goods: Objects found with skeletons can indicate wealth and status among the deceased.
- Example of a grave in Brahmagiri with numerous valuable items compared to simpler burials.
Megaliths sometimes have multiple skeletons, suggesting family burials with intergenerational practices.

Skeletal studies indicate sex based on bone structure, specifically pelvic differences.
In Inamgaon, evidence of varied diet and animal remains informs researchers about local occupations:
- Cultivation related to wheat, barley, rice, pulses, and various meats.

The cultural significance of funeral rituals in Inamgaon reflects their social practices and beliefs about life and death.
- Encouragement of students to reflect on the differences in social standings and literary traditions from then to now.