Kantian questions

Concept and Classification of Philosophy and Knowledge

• Objective of the unit (as stated in the transcript):
  • To explain the concept of philosophy in general.
  • To explain the concept of humans in general.
  • To explain the definition and concept of science (knowledge) according to Islamic and Western scholars.
• Human beings as a foundational theme:
  • Humans are God’s creatures with two fundamental elements: body (physical) and spirit (spiritual).
  • Humans possess senses and desires (lust) and have a role as caliph on earth.
  • Adam is presented as the first human model and example for understanding life, linking basic requirements to philosophy and science.
• Core focus: Understanding the concept of philosophy and science (knowledge) within both Islamic and Western frameworks, and how these concepts relate to human life and divine purpose.

What is Philosophy?

• Philosophy as a field consists of the love of wisdom and the pursuit of deep understanding.
• Language-based definition (origin):
  • Al-Farabi: Philosophy comes from the Greek language borrowed into Arabic: Philo (love) + Sophia (wisdom) → philosophy means the love of wisdom.
  • Pudjawijatna adds: Philo broadly means love or desire to attain what one wants; Sophia means wisdom, smart or deeply understand. Therefore, philosophy can be defined as the ‘desire to understand deeply’ or the ‘love of wisdom’.
  • Formula (languages): $ext{Philosophy} = ext{Philo} + ext{Sophia}$
• Terminology-based definitions (classical philosophers):
  • Plato (427–347 BC): Philosophy is the knowledge of everything that exists.
  • Aristotle (384–322 BC): Philosophy investigates the cause and basis of all things.
  • Al-Farabi (c. 950 CE): Philosophy is the knowledge of the universe that exists and seeks to investigate its true nature.
• Al-Farabi’s background:
  • Abu Nasr Mohammad Ibn al-Farakh al-Farabi, born near Farab in Turkistan (259 A.H. / 870 CE).
  • Known in Europe as al-Pharabius; son of a general; studied in Farab, Bukhara, and Baghdad (901–942 CE) where he mastered multiple languages and branches of knowledge; associated with the Abbasid intellectual milieu (six caliphs).
  • Reputed as one of the “second masters” after Aristotle.
• Supporting illustrations and institutions:
  • Example: The Scientific Library of al-Farabi Kazakh State National University emphasizes the enduring value of books and wisdom across civilizations.
• Kant and later Western figures (brief context):
  • Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) is presented as a pivotal modern Western philosopher with a distinctive view on the questions philosophy seeks to answer (anthropology, religion, ethics, metaphysics).
  • Friedrich Nietzsche is acknowledged as another prominent German philosopher, positioned alongside Kant in the slide but without extended details in this transcript.

Understanding Philosophy (Key definitions by scholars)

• Robert Paul Wolff (quote in the transcript): A systematic thinking pattern, critical study, descriptions, and actions aimed at making oneself wise.
• John Hospers (1988): Philosophy as the study of how we know things; applies to broad issues including the physical world, mind, scientific theories, religious and ethical theories.
• Summary view: Philosophy is a method of inquiry into knowledge, existence, ethics, and the nature of reality, aiming to produce wisdom and understanding.
• Philosophy as attitudes and beliefs about life and nature; a critical process of trust and action; an attempt to obtain an overview of life that seeks unity among religion, history, and science.
• Philosophical problems typically revolve around questions such as the meaning and purpose of life and the role of life itself.
• Hasbullah Bakry’s perspective (Sistematik firasat): philosophy is the science/knowledge that explores the divine, the universe, and humanity in depth to understand and guide human behavior in relation to knowledge.
• “Disclosure of philosophy” (three basic questions identified by Dr. D.C. Mulder):
  • Is God there, and who is God?
  • What and who are humans?
  • What is the essence of all reality, what does it mean and what is its intent?
• Dr. A.C. Ewing’s expansion of philosophical questions: Truth, Matter, Mind; Relation of Matter and Mind; Space and Time; Cause; Freedom; Monism vs Pluralism; God.
• Key argumentative themes: Philosophy often involves questions about truth, knowledge, existence, mind, and reality, and historically interacts with religion and science.
• Conclusion (philosophy’s focus in this material): Three focal points in philosophy studies are the Lord/Creator, Nature’s reality, and Human nature.

Philosophy: Language, Definitions, and Method

• Language-based definitions reaffirm the etymology of philosophy: Philo (love) + Sophia (wisdom).
• A radical approach to thinking: a thorough, in-depth examination of topics.
• Philosophy method: dialectic (dialektik) — a method of developing the mind through dialogue and reasoned argument.
• Philosophy and science: viewed as tools to fulfill humans’ role as caliphs or stewards under God; science addresses what is science, what counts as knowledge, and the scope of information.
• Wan Mohd Nor Wan Daud (1997): The questions about science must be answered correctly to avoid misinterpretation of knowledge; science is easy to understand but difficult to define.
• Core proposition: Science/knowledge is a tool for achieving human roles as viceregents or caliphs in creation, requiring proper understanding and ethical use.

The Concept and Classification of Knowledge (Islamic vs Western Perspectives)

• English terminology: Knowledge and science denote information and intelligence; etymologically linked to the Arabic roots Alima / Ya’lama / Ilman; knowledge is the abstract noun derived from the verb Alima.
  • In Islamic terms, knowledge connects the knower to the known and anchors the authority of knowledge in God as the source.
• Western perspective (summary): Knowledge is often anchored in empirical evidence, common sense, and rational inquiry; knowledge claims are judged by evidence and sense experience; there is skepticism about sources beyond perception and reason.
• Christian perspective (Genesis-based example): The tree of the knowledge of good and evil in Genesis 2:15–17 is used to illustrate the biblical framing of knowledge as a moral and existential boundary; the fall narrative connects knowledge, moral responsibility, and divine command.
  • Genesis 2:15–17 (paraphrased): God commanded the man not to eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil; disobedience leads to knowledge of moral nakedness and shame.
  • Historical note: The interpretive shift in Western history includes church authority and the eventual move toward scientific inquiry, with some Western regions under Muslim rule (Spain/Sicily) contributing to knowledge pursuit.

Knowledge Classification in Islam

• Broad Islamic framing: Islam integrates knowledge and ideas to develop self, community, and environment; knowledge is a trust from God (caliphate) and aims at devotion to God.
• Two primary categories:
  • Naqli (revelatory knowledge): includes fardu ain (individual obligation) and religious sciences such as Qur’an, tafsir, hadith, juristic sciences (fiqh), kalam, tasawuf, etc.
  • Aqli (rational knowledge): includes fardu kifayah (communal obligation) and knowledge acquired through reason and investigation.
• Hierarchy of knowledge in Islam:
  • Naqli knowledge is revealed by Allah through prophets; considered absolute truth.
  • Aqli (kasbi) knowledge arises from human effort and is relatively true, dependent on mind and senses.
• Al-Ghazali’s and Mulla Sadra’s classifications:
  • Al-Ghazali (4 groups):
    1) Theoretical vs practical science
    2) Huduri (present) vs husuli (acquired) science
    3) Religious (shari’iyyah) vs intellectual ('aqliyyah) sciences
    4) Fardu ain vs fardu kifayah; mahmud (praiseworthy) vs madhmum (blameworthy); mubah (permissible) as needed
  • Mulla Sadra: worldly science vs science of endurance (spiritual/perennial knowledge).
• Science/knowledge acceptance: three forms
  1) Words of God (revelation): sharia sciences (Qur’an, tafsir, hadith, fiqh, Kalam, Tasawuf)
  2) Inspiration (lādunni): closer to revelation; not universally accessible
  3) Empirical science: sensory-based knowledge; evidence-based and rationally validated

Ontology, Epistemology, and Axiology in Islam

• There are three knowledge domains to answer philosophical questions:
  • Ontology (existence theory)
  • Epistemology (acquisition theory)
  • Axiology (value theory)
• Suriasumantri (1995) framing: each theory has distinct characteristics—what (ontology), how (epistemology), and what (axiology) the knowledge is about.

Ontology

• Etymology: from Greek onto (existence) + logos (reasoned discourse); thus, ontology studies the nature, origin, and reality of objects from an abstract perspective.
• Purpose: describe the fundamental nature of existence, the reality of things, and their origins.
• The ontological questions in the Qur’an and Islamic thought explore the semantic breadth of knowledge: the Quran uses a variety of terms for knowledge (e.g., knowledge, wisdom, fikr, ulul al-bab, ulul al-absar).

Epistemology

• Etymology: Greek episteme (knowledge) + logos (reasoned discourse); theory of knowledge.
• Scope: encompasses justification, interpretation, translation, control, and the boundaries of knowledge.
• Diagrammatic concept (in the transcript): a schematic of brain involvement in knowledge acquisition; emphasizes the link between cognitive processes and knowledge claims.
• Hospers’ sources (Western): perception, introspection, memory, reason, faith, intuition, testimony.
  • Note: All seven sources can be disputed; Western epistemology emphasizes empirical and rational bases with limited connection to revelation.
• Central tension: whether knowledge can be grounded in senses and reason alone or also in divine revelation.

Axiology

• Etymology: from Greek axia (value) + logos (logic/theory).
• Definition: value theory; concern with what is valuable, worthwhile, and the evaluative criteria for truth, goodness, and usefulness.
• In Islam, the value of science and reasoning is central to guiding human action; knowledge is connected to moral conduct and obedience to God.
• Valuation and usefulness: knowledge is assessed by its consequences for humans and their relationship with God and society.

Five Values Acceptable to Humans (Islamic framing of value ethics)

• Five-value framework (as presented in the transcript):
  • Fardu (Fard) – obligatory; must be performed; highly important.
  • Sunnat (Sunat) – recommended; virtuous; encouraged.
  • Must (Must) – morally balanced; required in practice depending on context.
  • Makruh – discouraged; not ideal; avoid if possible.
  • Haram – forbidden; the most severe; prohibited.
• These categories reflect how Islam guides ethical judgment and decision-making about actions, habits, and knowledge pursuits.

Conclusions and Implications

• Islam promotes an integrated approach to knowledge: combining revelation (naqli) and rational (aqli) inquiry to foster self-development, community welfare, and ethical living as service to God (caliphs) and the broader trust institutions.
• Knowledge has intrinsic dignity when aligned with knowing God and truth; it elevates human status and guides behavior, values, and social roles.
• The threefold framework—Ontology, Epistemology, and Axiology—provides a comprehensive basis for evaluating what exists, how we know it, and what values guide our judgments about knowledge.

Key Takeaways and Connections to Foundational Principles

• Philosophy is a method for deep understanding, critical thinking, and integration of diverse sources of knowledge (revelation, reason, science).
• The Islamic framework emphasizes a holistic synthesis of knowledge domains, with a clear hierarchy that places revealed knowledge as foundational and rational knowledge as a necessary complement.
• Western account emphasizes empirical methods and rational justification; Islam adds a dimension of divine source and moral evaluation.
• The concept of knowledge is not merely factual; it carries ethical implications and is tied to human purpose and duty as custodians (caliphs) of God’s creation.
• Ontology asks what exists; Epistemology asks how we know; Axiology asks why knowledge matters and how we value it.
• The dialectic method (philosophy as a process) remains a central tool for exploring questions about God, nature, and humanity across both traditions.

Quick Reference to Key Figures and Concepts (with dates and notes)

• Plato (427–347 BC): Philosophy as knowledge of everything that exists.
• Aristotle (384–322 BC): Philosophy as investigation of causes and bases of things.
• Al-Farabi (c. 870–950 CE): Philosophy as knowledge of the universe; “second master” after Aristotle; links to Islamic translation and transmission of Greek thought; born near Farab; studied in Baghdad.
• Kant (1724–1804): Philosophy as a framework for addressing anthropology, religion, ethics, and metaphysics; influential in modern Western thought.
• Nietzsche (1844–1900): Noted as a major German philosopher alongside Kant (perspective context only in the transcript).
• Hasbullah Bakry: Synthesis on philosophy as knowledge of the divine, universe, and humanity; knowledge and conduct.
• John Hospers (1988): Sources of knowledge include perception, introspection, memory, reason, faith, intuition, and testimony.
• Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Al-Ghazali, Ibn Rushd (Averroes), Al-Kindi, Augustine: Historical examples of philosophers mentioned as exemplars of philosophical problems.

Notable Quotes and References (formatted for study)

• Etymology of philosophy: $ext{Philosophy} = ext{Philo} + ext{Sophia}$ where Philo means love and Sophia means wisdom.
• Ontology etymology: $ext{Ontology} = ext{onto} + ext{logos}$ (existence + reasoned discourse).
• Epistemology etymology: $ext{Epistemology} = ext{episteme} + ext{logos}$ (knowledge + logical discourse).
• Axiology etymology: $ext{Axiology} = ext{axios} + ext{logos}$ (value + logic/theory).
• Kant’s guiding questions (illustrative): $$igl\, ext{What can we know?} \ ext{What can we do?} \ ext{What is a human being?} \ ext{Where is our hope?} igr\