Political Change Study Notes

Political Change

7.0 Governance Systems

In this outcome, we will:

  • 7.1 Differentiate between models of governance
  • 7.2 Explain the development of governance systems from the Paleoithic to the Ancient Era
  • 7.3 Explain the concept of citizenship and how it developed in the ancient Era

7.1 Governance Systems

  • There are many different types of governments all around the world.
  • Nations do not always agree about the role of government and the responsibilities of country leaders.
  • All types of governments can be categorized into three different groups:
    • Rule of One
    • Rule of the Few
    • Rule of the Many

Quote by Voltaire

  • "To learn who rules over you, simply find out who you are not allowed to criticize."

Rule of One

  • The Rule of One means that one person rules over everyone in a state.
  • In this case, one person is in charge of a nation’s system of governance.
  • Also referred to as autocracy.
Autocracy
  • Definition: An autocracy is a system of government in which supreme power is concentrated in the hands of one person, whose decisions are subject to neither external legal restraints nor consistent and recognized means of citizen control.
  • Main Historical Forms: Absolute monarchy and dictatorship.
    • Example: Emperor Caesar Augustus of Rome (27 BCE – 14 CE)
    • Example: Louis XIV of France (1638 – 1715 CE)
Monarchy
  • Definition: A monarchy is a form of government in which one member of a family (dynasty) exercises sovereignty (power and authority).
  • The actual power of the monarch may vary from purely symbolic to partial and restricted (constitutional monarchy) to complete power (absolute monarchy).
    • Traditionally, the monarch's position is inherited and lasts until death or abdication (voluntarily stepping down).
    • Example: Queen Elizabeth II (constitutional monarchy in the UK)
    • Example: Tsar Nicolas II of Russia (1896 – 1917 CE)
Dictatorship
  • A dictatorship is a form of government where a country is ruled by one person or one political party. This person often has complete power.
  • Various mechanisms ensure power remains in the dictator's hands (e.g., laws, military forces).
  • Authoritarianism: Strict enforcement of obedience to authority (e.g., government) at the expense of personal freedom.
  • Notable 20th Century Dictators:
    • Adolf Hitler – Germany (1933 – 1945 CE)
    • Joseph Stalin – USSR (1927 – 1953 CE)

Rule of the Few

  • The Rule of the Few means that a small group of people rule over everyone. This is also referred to as oligarchy.
  • Forms of Rule of the Few include:
    • Aristocracy
    • Junta
    • Meritocracy
    • Plutocracy
    • Theocracy
Aristocracy
  • Definition: A form of government that places power in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class, often with family connections.
  • Originally, aristocrats were considered the best qualified citizens, but it has come to signify a privileged group.
Junta
  • A form of governance where a state is taken over by force and controlled by a small group.
  • Often associated with military states, with high-ranking officers using their power to seize control through a coup d'état.
    • Example: Myanmar was ruled by a military junta in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.
Meritocracy
  • Definition: A governance system where the most capable or highly skilled individuals rule the state.
  • Achievements and education set rulers apart from others.
    • Example: The British Colony of India (17th-19th centuries).
Plutocracy
  • A government where wealthy individuals have significant influence and control over political affairs.
  • This can be seen as many forms of government, including monarchies and dictatorships, tend to be plutocratic due to the wealth of rulers.
    • Example: The Medici family in Renaissance Florence.
Theocracy
  • Definition: A form of government in which religious leaders control the state, claiming divine guidance.
    • Example: Ancient city-states in Mesopotamia such as Ur.

Rule of the Many

  • The Rule of the Many means that a large segment of the population has input into governance and decision-making or votes to place leaders in charge.
  • Often referred to as democracy.
  • The two common forms of democracy are:
    • Direct Democracy
    • Representative Democracy
Direct Democracy
  • Also known as pure democracy, where citizens decide on public issues directly.
  • Comes from Greek words: demos (people) and kratos (power).
  • Examples:
    • Athens in ancient Greece
    • Present-day Switzerland
Representative Democracy
  • A system where elected officials represent a group of people.
  • Most common type of democracy, allowing for efficient governance.
  • Voter opinions expressed directly through elections.
    • Examples:
    • The Roman Republic
    • Canada
    • The United Kingdom
    • The United States of America

Key Features of Healthy Democracies

  • Checks and balances are crucial to ensure that no single segment of government holds excessive power.
  • This is typically achieved through a separation of powers, a structure often referred to as a tripartite system, introduced by Baron de Montesquieu in 1748.

Quote by Winston Churchill

  • "Democracy is the worst form of government except for all the others that have been tried."

Summary of Governance Systems

  • Rule of One (Autocracy): Monarchy, Dictatorship
  • Rule of the Few (Oligarchy): Aristocracy, Junta, Meritocracy, Plutocracy, Theocracy
  • Rule of the Many (Democracy): Direct Democracy, Representative Democracy

7.2 Development of Governance Systems

Paleolithic Governance

  • Stone Age peoples organized in an informal, egalitarian manner, based on shared decision-making and consensus-building.
    • Egalitarianism: The belief that all group members are equal.
    • Most individuals had similar jobs (e.g., men hunted, women gathered).
    • Little specialization with small populations meant managing relationships was easier.

Shared Decision Making

  • Because no single person held more power, decisions impacted everyone similarly, so consensus was crucial for survival.
  • Community membership was based on familial ties, which helped distribute benefits equitably.

Neolithic Governance

  • Societies transitioned from informal governance to city-states due to the Neolithic Revolution and the establishment of permanent settlements.
    • City-States: A city with surrounding lands functioning as an independent political unit.
    • People identified by city of origin, as nations didn't exist.

Evolution of Governance

  • The first agricultural revolution led to major societal changes (food surplus, urbanization).
    • This resulted in more complex societies:
    • Advanced cities necessitated larger populations and trade.
    • Specialization among workers created class systems and increased roles.
    • Advanced technology made various tasks more effective.

Formalization of Government

  • Institutions developed to help manage larger populations and community needs.
    • Formalization: Laws became authoritative and more consistent, and decision-making became more centralized.

Governance in Sumer

  • In Sumer, governance took the form of autocratic rule, specifically a theocracy, where religious leaders held authority.
    • Leaders performed religious ceremonies and made crucial decisions about trade, defense, and daily life.
    • The separation of religious and governmental power was often tied to divine legitimacy.

Ancient Greece

  • By 750 BCE, Greek city-states (poleis) emerged around the Aegean Sea, approximately covering 50-500 square miles with populations usually less than 10,000.
  • Many city-states employed different forms of government, including:
    • Monarchy: Rule by a king, often unpopular.
    • Aristocracy: Rule by a small group of noble families, more common.
    • Oligarchy: Wealthy merchants challenging noble families for power.

Democracy in Athens

  • Power struggles led to the establishment of tyrants who would gain common people's support against established governments.
  • Key figures like Draco, Solon, Cleisthenes, and Pericles influenced the development of Athenian democracy:
    • Draco (621 BCE): Implemented harsh laws (death penalties), emphasizing equality under the law for all citizens.
    • Solon (594 BCE): Outlawed debt slavery; organized Athenians into social classes based on wealth; introduced the Athenian assembly (ecclesia) for decision-making.
    • Cleisthenes (circa 500 BCE): Reformed the system for fair representation, allowing all citizens to propose laws and establishing the Council of Five Hundred to assist in decisions.
    • Pericles (461-429 BCE): Expanded democracy by paying officials, enabling poor citizens' participation, and promoting direct democracy where citizens made decisions collectively.

Citizenship in Athens

  • Citizenship conferred rights under law and had restrictions:
    • Only adult males (approximately 30,000) were citizens and could participate in governance.
    • Non-citizens included women, children, slaves, and metics (foreign residents).
    • Citizenship could sometimes be awarded for great service to the state.
    • After Pericles, citizenship was restricted to those with both Athenian parents.

7.3 Development of Governance Systems

The Roman Republic

  • Rome was believed to be founded in 753 BCE by twins Romulus and Remus.
  • From 1000-500 BCE, the Italian peninsula was mainly inhabited by the Latins, Etruscans, and Greeks, with the Latins founding Rome.
  • Rome initially ruled by monarchy until 509 BCE when Tarquin the Proud was overthrown, leading to the establishment of a republic, granting citizens voting rights.

Class Structure

  • The Patricians: Wealthy landowners with inherited power, holding most government positions.
  • The Plebeians: Farmers, merchants, and artisans making up the majority; held voting rights but could not hold significant government positions.
  • The introduction of tribunes helped protect plebeian rights against patrician abuses.

Written Laws

  • By 451 BCE, Roman laws were codified in the Twelve Tables, which established rights for all free citizens under the law.

Government Structure Under the Republic

  • Government combined elements of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy:::
    • Two Consuls: Head of government with one-year terms; power balanced through veto.
    • Senate: Composed of 300 patricians, advising consuls and overseeing public affairs.
    • Plebian Assemblies: Elected officials, including tribunes, and made laws.
    • Dictators: Appointed in emergencies with absolute power.

Roman Army

  • Political offices often required military service; organized into legions and centuries, with all landowning citizens obligated to serve.

Citizenship in the Roman Republic

  • Male landowners over 15 were citizens; women had limited rights and could not vote or hold public office.
  • Slaves were not considered citizens; freedmen did not automatically gain citizenship.
  • Roman citizens distinguished themselves with togas; emperors wore purple togas to signify their status.