International Relations Test – Complete Human Security Reading Notes

Agency and Machines

  • Coker uses Bruno Latour’s theory, stating that agency is relational and comes from interactions between humans and tools.

  • AI lacks motivation, intention, and consciousness, which are central to human agency.

Autonomous Weapons

  • Systems such as Israel’s Harop drone and the U.S. Sea Hunter are semi-autonomous raising ethical concerns because their decision-making bypasses human moral judgement.

Ethics and Intelligence

  • Machines may beat humans in logic-based decision-making, but they lack rationality in the human sense, like emotional awareness, purpose, and ethical reasoning.

  • AI cannot “choose” peace, and can only follow code.

Actors vs Agents

  • AI can act (execute tasks) but cannot be agents (make autonomous moral decisions).

  • They do not possess teleology or social intentionality.

  • Peace requires human empathy and diplomacy.

Human Security Implications

  • AI risks dehumanizing war and removing accountability.

  • Machines may reduce operational risk but cannot engage in reconciliation or peacebuilding, which is crucial for lasting human security.

  • AI may amplify state power but must remain under ethical human oversight.

  • Human security necessitates keeping humans in the loop to ensure peace and justice.

Boko Haram: Time for an Alternative Approach

  • Failure of governance, corruption, and social inequality in northern Nigeria created fertile ground for Boko Haram.

  • A purely military response has exacerbated the humanitarian crisis, displaced civilians, and increased radicalization.

  • A shift is needed toward development-oriented and community-based strategies as a sustainable solution.

  • Boko Haram has undermined personal, economic, and political security, particularly for women and children.

  • Military approaches often ignore root causes such as poverty, unemployment, and social marginalization.

  • Development, education, and political inclusion are necessary for achieving lasting peace.

Policy Recommendations

  • Incorporate youth and civil society in peacebuilding efforts.

  • Strengthen regional cooperation and intelligence sharing.

  • Invest in long-term solutions including infrastructure, education, and local governance.

  • A multidimensional approach rooted in human security principles is necessary to counter Boko Haram’s influence effectively.

African Solutions to African Problems

  • AfSol prioritizes local knowledge, regional cooperation, and traditional mechanisms of conflict resolution.

  • Western-led interventions often fail to account for cultural specificity and long-term development needs.

  • Regional organizations such as the African Union and ECOWAS are better placed to handle local crises through contextual understanding.

  • AfSol aligns with human security’s emphasis on people-centered solutions.

  • Local ownership and participation are key to addressing root causes of insecurity (e.g., poverty, identity conflicts).

  • Incorporating indigenous values and governance mechanisms enhances legitimacy and effectiveness.

Case Studies

  • African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM): Demonstrates African-led peace enforcement, though dependent on external funding.

  • Gacaca courts in Rwanda: A local mechanism for transitional justice that reinforced community healing.

Critiques

  • Regional bodies often lack capacity and funding, limiting effectiveness.

  • Risk of elite capture and authoritarian abuse in the name of “African solutions”.

  • While AfSol offers a promising framework aligned with human security, it must be supported by institutional capacity, accountability, and inclusive governance.

Preventive Diplomacy and the Lake Malawi Dispute

  • The Lake Malawi dispute is rooted in colonial-era demarcation ambiguities and competition over oil and gas exploration.

  • Preventive diplomacy, as practiced by the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and the African Union (AU), helped to avoid armed conflict.

  • Early engagement and diplomatic mediation are emphasized as cost-effective and sustainable conflict prevention strategies.

  • Preventive diplomacy prioritizes peaceful resolution over military engagement, aligning with the human security principle of freedom from fear.

  • The dispute affects economic and environmental security, particularly for lakeside communities dependent on fishing and agriculture.

  • Successful diplomacy avoided displacement and infrastructural damage that often follow border conflicts.

Challenges Identified

  • Regional diplomatic bodies face limitations in enforcement and are often constrained by state sovereignty concerns.

  • Resource-based conflicts are prone to flare-ups without institutionalized cooperation mechanisms.

Policy Recommendations

  • Institutionalize preventive diplomacy with binding protocols and timely intervention.

  • Enhance transparency and joint resource management in disputed zones.

  • Incorporate civil society actors to strengthen local participation and legitimacy.

  • The Lake Malawi case illustrates how diplomacy can uphold human security by addressing disputes early.

  • Emphasizes the importance of dialogue, regional cooperation, and inclusive processes in Africa’s peace and security architecture.

AMISOM and Regional Peacekeeping

  • AMISOM was launched in 2007 to support the transitional government, combat Al-Shabaab insurgents, and create space for political stabilization.

  • Troop contributions came from African countries such as Uganda, Burundi, Kenya, and Ethiopia.

Human Security Implications

  • AMISOM contributed to personal security by protecting civilians from Al-Shabaab attacks and providing secure zones.

  • It aimed to restore political security by enabling democratic governance and elections.

  • The mission also addressed economic and community security through infrastructure repair and access to aid.

Challenges

  • Accusations of human rights abuses and civilian casualties undermined trust in the mission.

  • Dependency on international funding (notably from the EU) limited AU autonomy.

  • Logistical and strategic coordination among troop-contributing countries was often weak.

Successes and Lessons

  • Helped reclaim major cities from militants and enabled humanitarian access.

  • Demonstrated potential for African-led interventions using local knowledge and regional legitimacy.

  • Reinforced the need for integrated approaches combining military, political, and developmental strategies.

  • AMISOM is a benchmark for regionally-led conflict management.

  • It supports the idea that African institutions can play a central role in upholding human security when properly resourced and coordinated.

Cyberpower and Global Insecurity

  • Cyberpower refers to the ability to use digital networks to influence, disrupt, or damage enemy states or populations.

  • States are increasingly vulnerable to cyberattacks that can paralyze infrastructure without a single bullet being fired.

  • Cyberwarfare challenges traditional military doctrine, undermines deterrence theory, and redefines the battlefield.

Relevance to Human Security

  • Cyberattacks can cripple hospitals, water systems, and financial institutions, threatening economic, health, and infrastructure security.

  • Disinformation campaigns can incite political violence and erode community security by targeting ethnic, religious, or political groups.

  • Civilian populations are the most vulnerable, particularly in less technologically advanced states that lack cyber defense mechanisms.

Examples

  • Alleged Russian cyber-interference in U.S. and European elections.

  • Stuxnet virus (US-Israeli) against Iran’s nuclear program as a precedent for state-level offensive cyber use.

  • The rise of cybercrime targeting developing economies and marginalized communities.

Policy Implications

  • Cybersecurity must be viewed as a public good, requiring international norms and multilateral cooperation.

  • Human security advocates should push for inclusion of cyber threats in peacebuilding frameworks.

  • There's a pressing need to bridge the digital divide and support digital literacy to defend against cyber manipulation.

  • Cyberpower reshapes how insecurity is produced and experienced.

  • It further blurs the lines between war and peace and between military and civilian domains, demanding a renewed human security approach that includes the digital realm.

Quick Summaries for Revision

  • Coker (2019) – Artificial Intelligence and the Future of War: AI is reshaping war but cannot replace human conscience or responsibility. Human security requires human agency.

  • Santos (2014) – Boko Haram: Time for an Alternative Approach: Boko Haram thrives due to poor governance. A human security approach must include education and development.

  • Lobakeng (2017) – African Solutions to African Problems: AfSol supports using African institutions to solve conflicts. Human security improves when local voices shape peace efforts.

  • Lalbahadur (2016) – Preventive Diplomacy and the Lake Malawi Dispute: Preventive diplomacy helped avoid conflict. Regional cooperation protected communities, which is a peaceful model for resolving African disputes.

  • AMISOM – African Union Peacekeeping Case Study: AMISOM helped secure Somalia. It shows African leadership can promote security when supported.

  • Coker (Cyberpower and Global Insecurity): Cyberattacks can damage civilian life, requiring a broader human security lens to protect digital infrastructure.

Extended Summaries for All Readings

  • Coker (2019) – Artificial Intelligence and the Future of War: AI in warfare challenges agency and ethics. AI lacks moral reasoning and empathy. Human security must not be outsourced to machines.

  • Santos (2014) – Boko Haram: Time for an Alternative Approach: Military approaches have deepened insecurity. A human security approach requires addressing socioeconomic conditions and investing in education.

  • Lobakeng (2017) – African Solutions to African Problems: AfSol emphasizes African-led responses, using indigenous mechanisms and regional institutions. It aligns with human security, which advocates for context-sensitive strategies.

  • Lalbahadur (2016) – Preventive Diplomacy and the Lake Malawi Dispute: Diplomatic engagement prevented violent conflict. Regional cooperation and conflict prevention uphold both state and human security.

  • AMISOM – African Union Peacekeeping Case Study: AMISOM stabilized major cities and restored governance. Despite criticisms, it shows that African-led peacekeeping can effectively respond to regional threats when paired with long-term development.

  • Coker (Cyberpower and Global Insecurity): Cyberwarfare poses existential risks to civilian life. A revised human security approach must include cyber resilience and international cooperation.