Nationalism in India

Indian Nationalism and Colonialism

Modern nationalism in India is fundamentally linked to the anti-colonial movement. Diverse social groups discovered unity through their shared struggle and bond of oppression under British rule, though their experiences and definitions of freedom varied. The Congress, led by Mahatma Gandhi, aimed to unite these groups into a single movement, despite internal conflicts.

Post-War Crisis and the Arrival of Gandhi

In the years following $1919$, the movement spread to new areas and groups. World War I created a severe economic crisis through increased defense expenditures, war loans, and taxes. Prices doubled between $1913$ and $1918$, while forced recruitment in rural areas and crop failures in $1918-19$ and $1920-21$ caused widespread distress. The $1921$ census reported $12$ to $13$ million deaths due to famines and the influenza epidemic. In January $1915$, Mahatma Gandhi returned from South Africa, introducing the method of satyagraha.

Satyagraha and the Rowlatt Act

Satyagraha emphasizes the power of truth and non-violence, suggesting that physical force is unnecessary against injustice. Gandhi organized successful local satyagrahas in Champaran ($1917$) for peasants, Kheda ($1918$) for revenue relaxation, and Ahmedabad ($1918$) for cotton mill workers. In $1919$, the Rowlatt Act allowed the government to detain political prisoners without trial for $2$ years. Gandhi launched a nationwide satyagraha with a hartal on $6$ April $1919$, leading to government crackdowns.

Jallianwalla Bagh and the Khilafat Issue

On $13$ April $1919$, General Dyer ordered troops to fire on a large, peaceful crowd at Jallianwalla Bagh in Amritsar to ‘produce a moral effect’ of terror. Following the subsequent brutal repression, Gandhi transitioned toward a broader movement. He identified the Khilafat issue—defending the temporal powers of the Ottoman Khalifa—as a way to unite Hindus and Muslims. The Khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March $1919$ by Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali.

The Strategy of Non-Cooperation

In Hind Swaraj ($1909$), Gandhi argued British rule survived because of Indian cooperation. He proposed Non-Cooperation in stages: surrendering government titles, followed by a boycott of civil services, army, police, courts, schools, and foreign goods. Despite internal Congress concerns about potential violence or council election boycotts, the programme was adopted at the Nagpur session in December $1920$.

Non-Cooperation in Urban Centers

The movement began in January $1921$. In towns, students left schools, lawyers gave up practices, and council elections were boycotted (except in Madras by the Justice Party). Economically, foreign cloth imports dropped from Rs $102$ crore to Rs $57$ crore between $1921$ and $1922$. However, the movement slowed as poor people could not afford expensive Khadi and alternative Indian institutions were slow to develop.

Peasant Agitation in the Countryside

In Awadh, Baba Ramchandra led peasants against exorbitant rents and begar (unpaid labor). The Oudh Kisan Sabha was formed in October $1920$, headed by Jawaharlal Nehru and Baba Ramchandra. However, the movement turned violent as houses were attacked and bazaars looted, which the Congress leadership disapproved of. Separately, Vallabhbhai Patel led the successful Bardoli Satyagraha in $1928$.

Tribal Resistance and Plantation Laborers

In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, Alluri Sitaram Raju led a militant guerrilla movement against forest restrictions and begar. Raju claimed special powers but was executed in $1924$. In Assam, plantation workers defied the Inland Emigration Act of $1859$, which restricted their movement. They left plantations for home under the belief that ‘Gandhi Raj’ was coming, but many were caught and beaten by police.

The End of Non-Cooperation

In February $1922$, Gandhi called off the Non-Cooperation Movement following the violent clash at Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur. He felt the satyagrahis needed further training before another mass struggle. This led to internal shifts in the Congress, as some leaders wanted to return to council politics.

Political Shifts and the Simon Commission

C. R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj Party to argue for council entry, while radicals like Jawaharlal Nehru pushed for full independence. Economic depression from $1926$ to $1930$ caused agricultural prices to collapse. In $1928$, the all-British Simon Commission arrived and was met with 'Go back Simon' protests. In October $1929$, Lord Irwin offered a vague 'dominion status'.

Purna Swaraj and the Salt March

At the December $1929$ Lahore Congress, the demand for ‘Purna Swaraj’ (full independence) was formalized. Gandhi chose salt as a unifying symbol against British monopoly. He sent a letter with $11$ demands to Irwin, stating a deadline of $11$ March $1930$. When ignored, he began the Salt March with $78$ volunteers, walking $240$ miles from Sabarmati to Dandi. On $6$ April $1930$, he broke the law, initiating the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Civil Disobedience and Colonial Repression

The movement involved breaking colonial laws, boycotting foreign cloth, and refusing to pay taxes. The government responded with brutal repression, arresting approximately $100,000$ people, including Abdul Ghaffar Khan (April $1930$) and Gandhi (May $1930$). Gandhi called off the movement on $5$ March $1931$ after the Gandhi-Irwin Pact and traveled to London for the Second Round Table Conference, which failed.

Social Groups and Revolutionary Nationalism

Rich peasants, such as the Patidars of Gujarat and Jats of Uttar Pradesh, supported the movement to lower revenue demands. Poorer peasants joined radical movements for rent remission. Revolutionary groups like the HSRA, founded in $1928$ by Bhagat Singh, Jatin Das, and Ajoy Ghosh, targeted British power. Bhagat Singh was executed at age $23$.

Economic Interests and the Role of Women

Industrialists like G. D. Birla, through FICCI (founded $1927$), supported the movement to remove colonial business restrictions. Industrial workers participated less, except in Nagpur. Women participated in large numbers, performing picketing and marching, seeing service to the nation as a ‘sacred duty,’ although the Congress remained reluctant to grant them authority.

The Dalit Question in the National Movement

Dalit leaders like Dr B.R. Ambedkar demanded separate electorates and reserved seats. Ambedkar formed the Depressed Classes Association in $1930$. Gandhi opposed separate electorates, fearing they would divide society, leading to his 'fast unto death' and the eventual Poona Pact in September $1932$, which provided reserved seats within the general electorate.

The Poona Pact and Communal Tensions

Following the decline of the Khilafat movement, Hindu-Muslim relations deteriorated, with the Congress appearing closer to groups like the Hindu Mahasabha. Efforts to forge unity in $1927$ failed at the All Parties Conference in $1928$ due to opposition from M.R. Jayakar. This created a climate of distrust during the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Muslim Political Identity and Demands

Muhammad Ali Jinnah was willing to abandon separate electorates for reserved seats and proportional representation in Bengal and Punjab. In $1930$, Sir Muhammad Iqbal reiterated the importance of separate electorates for protecting Muslim culture and political interests within India, providing an intellectual basis for subsequent demands for a separate state.

Cultural Roots of Collective Belonging

Nationalism was fostered through shared struggles and cultural processes such as history, fiction, and folklore. These elements helped create a sense of collective belonging across different regions. Figures and images were used to symbolize the nation visually.

Visual Symbols and Folklore Revival

The identity of India became associated with the image of Bharat Mata, first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, who wrote ‘Vande Mataram’ in the $1870s$. Abanindranath Tagore later painted her as an ascetic figure. Nationalists like Rabindranath Tagore and Natesa Sastri (The Folklore of Southern India) collected folk tales to restore pride in traditional culture.

National Flags and Reinterpreting History

During the Swadeshi movement, a tricolour flag was designed with $8$ lotuses and a crescent moon. In $1921$, Gandhi designed the Swaraj flag with a spinning wheel. Indians also reinterpreted history to showcase ancient achievements in art, science, and law, countering the British view of Indians as primitive.

Conclusion and the Quit India Movement

While the Congress sought to unify groups, the diverse aspirations often led to internal friction. The failure of the Cripps Mission and WWII led to the Wardha resolution on $14$ July $1942$ and the official 'Quit India' launch on $8$ August $1942$. Gandhi gave the 'Do or Die' speech, sparking a massive non-violent struggle involving students, workers, and leaders like Jayprakash Narayan and Matangini Hazra.

Questions & Discussion

Gandhi on Satyagraha (Source A): Gandhi clarified that satyagraha is not 'passive resistance' for the weak, but 'active resistance' requiring intense soul-force and love. It is the use of truth-force without ill-will or physical violence.

Nehru at Rae Bareli (Source B): On $6$ January $1921$, after police fired at peasants, Nehru praised the calm bravery of the 'kisans' and reflected on how their peace helped him maintain the dharma of non-violence during a moment of personal anger.

Iqbal on Communalism (Source D): Iqbal argued that the European model of democracy could not apply to India due to its communal diversity. He justified the demand for a 'Muslim India within India' as a means of harmonious development for the minority community.

Activities & Projects: The text prompts discussions on the effectiveness of the Salt March as a symbol, the different interpretations of 'Swaraj' by social groups, and comparison between the Indian national movement and that of Indo-China.

Timeline of Key Events in Indian Nationalism

• 1915: Mahatma Gandhi returns to India from South Africa; introduces the method of satyagraha.

• 1917: Successful satyagrahas in Champaran for peasants.

• 1918: Satyagrahas in Kheda for revenue relaxation and Ahmedabad for cotton mill workers.

• 1919: The Rowlatt Act is passed on March 10; nationwide satyagraha launches with a hartal on April 6. Jallianwalla Bagh massacre occurs on April 13.

• 1920: Non-Cooperation movement adopted at the Nagpur session in December.

• 1921: Movement begins in towns; significant drop in foreign cloth imports.

• 1922: Non-Cooperation movement called off in February after Chauri Chaura violence.

• 1928: Bardoli Satyagraha by Vallabhbhai Patel.

• 1929: Lahore Congress formally demands Purna Swaraj (full independence).

• 1930: Gandhi initiates the Salt March on March 12; Civil Disobedience Movement begins.

• 1931: Gandhi-Irwin Pact signed on March 5; second Round Table Conference in London fails.

• 1932: Poona Pact signed in September between Gandhi and Ambedkar.