The Climate of Ethiopia and the Horn

The Climate of Ethiopia and the Horn

5.1. Introduction

• Ethiopia's climate is influenced by its altitudinal range, proximity to the equator, and the Indian Ocean.
• The country experiences significant temporal and spatial variations in weather and climate elements.

5.2. Elements and Controls of Weather and Climate

• The climate is mainly controlled by the seasonal migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and Ethiopia's complex topography.
• Weather: The current state of the atmosphere, including temperature, pressure, humidity, wind, cloudiness, and precipitation.
• Weather parameters are measured using various instruments, primarily in the troposphere.
• Climate: The state of the atmosphere over long periods (decades or more), based on daily weather conditions and extremes.
• All weather conditions are related to the effect of the Sun on the Earth.
• Wind is the large-scale horizontal motion of air.
• The climate of a region is determined by radiation distribution and temporal fluctuations.

Elements

• Temperature
• Precipitation and humidity
• Wind and air pressure

Controls

• Latitude
• Altitude/Mountain barriers
• Distance from the sea/Land and water distribution
• Ocean currents

5.2.1. Controls of Weather and Climate

• Climate is determined by a combination of factors, including latitude, elevation, nearby water bodies, ocean currents, topography, vegetation, and prevailing winds.

• Variations in weather and climate between places and seasons are determined by climatic controls.

a) Latitude

• Latitude: The distance of a location from the equator.
• The equator receives more direct sunlight throughout the year, resulting in warmer temperatures.
• As you move away from the equator towards the poles, solar insolation decreases, and temperatures become colder.
• Ethiopia's latitudinal location results in:
  • High average temperatures
  • High daily and small annual ranges of temperature
  • No significant variation in the length of day and night between summer and winter

b) Inclination of the Earth's Axis

• The Earth's rotation axis is inclined at $66 \frac{1}{2}$ degrees to its orbit plane around the sun, or $23 \frac{1}{2}$ degrees from the perpendicular to the ecliptic plane.
• This inclination determines the location of the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn and the Arctic and Antarctic Circles.
• The inclination causes changes in the directness of the sun's rays, leading to differences in the length of day and seasons.

Equinoxes and Solstices

• Equinox: The moment when the sun strikes the Earth's equator plane, resulting in equal day and night lengths.
• Equinoxes occur twice a year.
  • Vernal (spring) equinox: Occurs when the sun crosses the equator northwards, marking the beginning of spring (around March 21).
  • Autumn equinox: Occurs when the sun crosses the equator southwards, marking the beginning of autumn (around September 23).
• Solstice: An event when the overhead sun crosses northern or southern points relative to the celestial equator, causing unequal day and night lengths.
  • Summer Solstice: On June 21st, the northern hemisphere has the maximum tilt towards the sun, experiencing the longest daylight. The sun is directly above $23 \frac{1}{2}°$ in the Tropic of Cancer.
  • Winter Solstice: On December 22nd, the maximum southward inclination is attained in the Southern Hemisphere, resulting in the shortest day and longest night. Occurs when the sun is directly over the Tropic of Capricorn, located at $23 \frac{1}{2}°$ south of the equator.

c) Altitude

• Altitude: The height of a location above sea level.
• Temperature generally decreases with increasing elevation.
• Lapse Rate: The average rate at which temperature changes per unit of altitudinal change, limited to the troposphere.
• The normal lapse rate is $6.5°C$ per kilometer rise in altitude.

Types of Lapse Rate

• Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate:
  • Temperature changes in rising or subsiding air masses due to internal processes of expansion and contraction.
  • Adiabatic lapse rate: The rate at which the temperature of an air parcel changes in response to expansion or compression with altitude change.
  • Vertical displacements of air cause adiabatic temperature changes.
  • When air rises, it expands due to less atmospheric pressure.
  • If air rises to about 18,000 ft (5486.22 meters), the pressure is reduced by nearly half, and its volume doubles.
  • For unsaturated air (relative humidity less than 100%), the adiabatic cooling or warming rate remains constant.
  • The rate of heating or cooling is about $10°C$ for every 1000 m of change in elevation. Applies only to unsaturated air.
• Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate:
  • Heat added during condensation affects the cooling rate due to the latent heat in the water vapor.
  • Rising or sinking saturated air changes temperature at a rate less than the dry adiabatic rate.
  • Prolonged cooling causes condensation, releasing latent heat.
  • Saturated or precipitating air cools at a slower rate.
  • The rate of cooling of wet air is approximately $5°C$ per 1000 meters ascent.
• Environmental Lapse Rate or Atmospheric Lapse Rate:
  • The actual, observed change of temperature with altitude.
  • Air temperature is normally highest at low elevations near the Earth and decreases with altitude.
  • The lower layer is warmer because it is closest to the heat source and has high density, water vapor, and dust content, making it an efficient absorber of Earth radiation.
  • This decrease in temperature prevails throughout the troposphere, except in temperature inversions.
  • The rate of change is $6.5°C$/1000 meters.

5.3. Spatio-temporal Patterns and Distribution of Temperature and Rainfall in Ethiopia

5.3.1 Spatio-temporal Distribution of Temperature

• Altitude is an important element in determining the temperature in Ethiopia.

• Latitude, humidity, and winds also have significant impacts.

• The spatial distribution of temperature is determined by altitude and latitude.

• Ethiopia's proximity to the equator results in every part of the country experiencing overhead sun twice a year.

• Tropical temperature conditions are limited to lowlands because of the high altitude.

• Temperature decreases towards the interior highlands.

• Mean annual temperature ranges from over $30°C$ in tropical lowlands to less than $10°C$ at very high altitudes.

• The Bale Mountains record the lowest mean annual temperatures; The Afar Depression records the highest mean maximum temperature.

• Lowlands of north-western, western, and south-eastern Ethiopia experiences mean maximum temperatures of more than $30°C$.

• Distribution of Ethiopian temperature is characterized by extremes, determined by latitude and cloud cover.

• Ethiopia Daily temperatures are more extreme than its annual averages.

• Daily maximum temperature varies from more than $37°C$ over the lowlands to about $10°C$-$15°C$ over the highlands.

• Variation in solar radiation received daily is small throughout the year.

• Temperature is high during the daytime and reduced at night.

• Monthly averages show minimal variation, and the annual range of temperature is small in both highlands and lowlands.

• Temperature shows seasonal variations.

• Months from March to June have the highest temperatures and low temperatures are recorded from November to February.

• There is a slight temperature increase in summer.

• The southern part of Ethiopia receives the highest temperature records in autumn and spring.

• Certain seasons have special considerations, such as the southern and southwestern highlands experience reduced temperatures because the temperature and energy reaching the surface is directly related with the directness of the sun.

• The direction of rain-bearing winds also determines the temperature variations in mountainous regions.

5.3.2. Spatiotemporal Distribution of Rainfall

• Rainfall system in Ethiopia is characterized by complexities.
• Rainfall is influenced by the position of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
• The ITCZ is formed by the convergence of Northeast Trade winds and Equatorial Westerlies.
  *Inter-annual oscillation of the surface position of the ITCZ causes a variation in the Wind flow patterns over Ethiopia.
• The ITCZ shifts north and south of the equator, following the position of the overhead sun, bringing moist winds.
• The shift takes place when the trade winds from the north retreat giving the space for equatorial westerlies.
• The ITCZ shifts towards the south of the equator (Tropic of Capricorn) in January. During this period, the Northeast Trade Winds carrying non-moisture-laden dominates the region.
• East parts of Eritrean and Afar coastal areas experience rainfall in this period.
• The ITCZ shifts towards the equator around March and September.
• During this time, the central highlands, southeastern highlands and lowlands receives rainfall as the south easterlies bring moist winds.

Seasonal or Temporal Variabilities

• Rainfall is highly variable in amount and distribution across regions and seasons.

• The pressures are related to the changes in the pressure systems discussed in the previous sections of this chapter.

• Temporal variabilities of rainfall are characterized by:

  • Summer (June, July, August): Majority of Ethiopian regions receive rainfall during the summer season.
  • High-pressure cells develop on the Atlantic and Indian Oceans around the tropic of Capricorn, they are the sources of rainfall. Equatorial Westerlies (Guinea monsoon) and Easterlies influence Ethiopia and the Horn.

• Autumn (September, October, and November): The ITCZ shifts towards the equator, weakening the equatorial westerlies.

  • South Easterlies from the Indian Ocean showers the lowlands in southeastern Ethiopia.

• Winter (December, January, and February): Northeasterly winds from Asia dominate the Ethiopian landmass.

  • These winds carry very little moisture, supplying rain only to the Afar lowlands and the Red Sea coastal areas.

• Spring (March, April, and May): The noonday sun shines directly on the equator.

  • The shift of the ITCZ, results in longer days and more direct solar radiation, providing warmer weather for the lands of northern world.
  • The effect of the northeast trade wind is reduced while the southeasterlies from the Indian Ocean provide rain to the highlands of Somalia and the central and southeastern lowlands and highlands of Ethiopia.

Rainfall Regions of Ethiopia

• Based on rainfall distribution, four rainfall regions can be identified in Ethiopia:

  • Summer rainfall region: Comprises almost all parts of the country, except the southeastern and northeastern lowlands.
  • Most rain falls during summer (Kiremt), with some places also receiving spring (Belg) rain.
  • Divided into dry and wet summer rainfall regions, with the wet region receiving rainfall of $1,000$ mm or more.

• All year-round rainfall region: Located in the southwestern part of the country.

  • Wetness due to moist air currents known as the Guinea Monsoons.
  • Rainfall decreases from southwest to north and eastwards.
  • Average rainfall varies from 1,400 to over 2,200 mm/year.

• Autumn and Spring rainfall regions: Comprises areas receiving rain influenced by southeasterly winds with influence from the Indian Ocean.

  • South eastern lowlands of Ethiopia receive rain from this wind.
    Amount of rain in autumn is about 60 percent and 40 percent in spring.
    Average rainfall received is from less than 500 to 1,000 mm.

• Winter rainfall region: Receives rain from the northeasterly winds.

  • The Red sea escarpments and some parts of the Afar region receive their main rain.

5.4. Agro-ecological Zones of Ethiopia

• Ethiopia possesses diverse agro-climatic zones due to its diversified altitude and climatic conditions.
• These zones are traditionally defined in terms of temperature and named as follows;
• Bereha
• Kolla
• Woina Dega
• Dega
• Wurch
  • The Wurch Zone: Altitude higher than 3,200 meters above sea level and mean annual temperature of less than $10°C$.
• Dega Zone: Highlands with relatively higher temperature and lower altitude compared to the Wurch Zones.
• Weyna Dega Zone: Warmer temperature and moderate rainfall. Lies between 1500-2,300 meters above sea level, covering more than 26% of Ethiopia's landmass.
• Kolla Zone: Geographic peripheries with an altitudinal range of 500 to 1500 meters above sea level. Average annual temperature ranges between $20°C$ and $30°C$.
• Bereha Zone: Hot arid climate of the desert lowlands with altitude lower than 500 meters. Average annual rainfall is less than 200 mm, and average annual temperature is over $27.5°C$.

5.5. Climate Change/Global Warming: Causes, Consequences, and Response Mechanisms

• Climate change refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g., using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer.
• It refers to any change in climate over time, due to either natural variability or human activities.

5.5.1. Current Trends of Climate in Ethiopia

• Ethiopia has experienced climatic changes over the last decades.

Trends in Temperature Variability

• Mean annual temperature has shown a $0.2°C$ to $0.28°C$ rise per decade over the last 40-50 years.
• A rise in average temperature of about $1.3°C$ has been observed between 1960 and 2006.
• The rise has spatial and temporal variation, with a higher rise in drier areas.
• The number of 'hot days' and 'hot nights' has also shown an increment.
• The country’s minimum temperature has increased with $0.37°C$ to $0.4°C$ per decade.

Trends in Rainfall Variability

• Precipitation has remained fairly stable over the last 50 years when averaged over the country.
• Rainfall variability is increasing (and predictability is decreasing) in many parts of the country.
• Parts of southern, south-western and south-eastern regions receiving Spring and Summer rainfall have shown a decline by 15-20% between 1975 and 2010.
• Changes in temperature and rainfall increase the frequency and severity of extreme events.

5.5.2. Causes of Climate Change

• The causes of climate change are generally categorized as anthropogenic/manmade and natural causes.

A. Natural Causes

• Climate change has many natural causes, such as variations in the energy budget, the position of Earth relative to Sun, the position of continents relative to the equator, and even whether the continents are together or apart.

  • Earth orbital changes: Changes in the tilt of the earth can lead to small but climatically important changes in the strength of the seasons. More tilt means warmer summers and colder winters.
  • Energy Budget: Although the Sun’s energy output appears constant, small changes over an extended period of time can lead to climate changes. Since the Sun was born, 4.55 billion years ago, the star has been very gradually increasing its amount of radiation so that it is now 20% to 30% more intense than it was once.
  • Volcanic eruptions: Volcanic eruption releases large volumes of sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, water vapor, dust, and ash into the atmosphere, increasing planetary reflectivity and causing atmospheric cooling.

B. Anthropogenic Causes

• The growing influence of human activities on the environment is being increasingly recognized, and concern over the potential for global warming caused by such anthropogenic effects is growing.
• The warming of earth planet in the past 50 years is majorly driven by human activities.
• The industrial activities that our modern civilization depends upon have raised atmospheric carbon dioxide levels from 280 parts per million to 400 parts per million in the last 150 years.
• Human induced greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide have caused much of the observed increase in Earth's temperatures over the past 50 years.
• The decomposition of wastes in landfills, agriculture, ruminant digestion and manure management, synthetic compounds manufacturing, clearing of land for agriculture, industrial activities, and other human activities have increased concentrations of greenhouse gases.

5.5.3. Consequences of Climate Change

• Climate change has already caused loss of life, damage, and affected livelihoods in many parts of the world.

• The impact of climate change is higher in low-income countries because they have limited capacity to cope with the changes.

  • Impacts on human health: Climate change can cause increased heat-related mortality and morbidity, greater frequency of infectious disease epidemics following floods and storms, and substantial health effects following population displacement to escape extreme weather events. Climate change also raises the incidence malaria.
  • Impact on water resources: Climate change is leading to the melting of snow and glaciers that increases rise in sea level, increases drought and floods, distorts wind flow pattern, decreases water table, more frequent and longer droughts reduce the amount of run-off into rivers, streams and lakes.
  • Impacts on Agriculture: Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns significantly affect agricultural production. Climate change increases physiological stress, fodder quality, and availability.
  • Impacts on Ecosystems: Climate change affects the success of species, population, and community adaptation. Species could be seriously affected or even disappear because they are unable to resist.

5.5.4. Climate Response Mechanisms

• Even if all greenhouse gas emissions stopped today, global warming and climate change will continue as it has a natural source of emission.

Mitigation and its Strategies

• Mitigation measures are actions taken to reduce and control greenhouse gas emissions that are changing the climate.

• It implies reducing the flow of heat-trapping greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, either by reducing sources of these gases or enhancing the “sinks” that accumulate and store these gases.

  • Practice Energy efficiency
  • Increase the use of renewable energy such as solar
  • Efficient means of transport implementation: electric public transport, bicycle, shared cars etc.

Adaptation and its Strategies

• Adaptation is adjusting to life in a changing climate.

• It involves adjusting to actual or expected future climate to reduce our vulnerability to the harmful effects of climate change such as extreme weather events or food insecurity.

  • building flood defenses
  • plan for heat waves and higher temperatures
  • installing water-permeable pavements to better deal with floods and storm water
  • improve water storage and use measures taken by cities and towns.
  • landscape restoration and reforestation
  • Cultivation to be prepared for natural catastrophes
  • preventive and precautionary measures (evacuation plans, health issues, etc.)

SOILS, NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

6.1. Introduction

• The formation and spatial variabilities of soils in Ethiopia is largely related to topographic and climatic factors, parent material (rocks) and land use.
• Distribution of wildlife and natural vegetation in Ethiopia and the Horn is controlled by climate, soil types, drainage, etc.
• Ethiopia possess unique and characteristic fauna and flora with a high level of endemicity.

6.2. Ethiopian Soils: Types, Degradation, and Conservation

Introduction

• Soil is a delicate but highly varied composition of mineral particles, organic matter, and living organisms in dynamic equilibrium.

• It consists of: weathered mineral materials (45%), organic matter (5%), air (20-30%) and water (20-30%).

• Soil formation is a long-term process that could take several thousands of years.

• Formation of a particular type of soil depends on parent material, climate, topography, living organism and time.

• There are three types of weathering involving in soil formation.

  *   **Mechanical (physical) weathering:** Physical disintegration causes decrease in size without appreciably altering composition.
  

• Biological weathering: The process of biological weathering involves the weakening and subsequent disintegration of rock by plants, animals and microbes
  * Chemical weathering: Chemical weathering involves the modification of the chemical and mineralogical composition of the weathered material. Most common chemical weathering processes are hydrolysis, oxidation, reduction, hydration, carbonation, and solution.

      * Soils have two basic properties:
          *   **Physical properties:** Properties such as texture, structure, porosity etc. are categorized under physical soil properties. These properties affect air and water movement in the soil, and thus the soil’s ability to function.
  

• Chemical Properties: Soil chemistry is the interaction of various chemical constituents that takes place among soil particles and in the water retained by soil. Soil properties like availability of minerals, electrical conductivity, soil pH, etc. Soil chemical properties affect soil biological activity and indirectly the nutrient dynamics.

6.2.2. Major Soil Types in Ethiopia

• Soils of Ethiopia are basically derived from crystalline, volcanic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks.
• FAO has identified 18 soil associations in Ethiopia at scale of 1:2,000,000. Out of the major soils, 11 soil associations cover about 87.4 percent of the land area.
  There are six major groups of soils in Ethiopia:

Nitosols and Acrisols

• Nitosols develop on gently sloping ground. Their parent materials include trap series volcanics, volcanic ash, and even metamorphic rocks.
  Mostly found in western highlands (Wellega), southwestern highlands (Kaffa, Illuababora), Southern highlands, Central highlands, and Eastern highlands.
• Acrisols are found along with nitosols mostly in some pockets of southwestern highlands of Ethiopia where there is high rainfall. have very low resilience to degradation and moderate sensitivity to yield decline.

Vertisols

• Vertisols are heavy clay soils with a high proportion of swelling clays when wet, and cracks when dry.
• Commonly found in parts of Northwestern, Central and Southeastern highlands (especially in Gojjam, Shewa, Arsi, Bale and central Hararghe).

Lithosols, Cambisols, and Regosol

• These soils are mostly found in rugged topography and steep slopes.
• Found on the Rift Valley Escarpments, rugged parts of Central Midlands, highlands in western Hararghe, and the Danakil and eastern Ogaden.
• Areas covered by these soils have limited agricultural use.

Xerosols, Yermosols, and Solanchaks

• These are soils of desert majorly available in arid and semiarid areas.
• Xerosols are soils are found in Ogaden and northeastern escarpments, whereas the Yermosols and Solonchaks cover the Ogaden and Afar plains. The Solonchaks are majorly located in salty plains of Afar.

Fluvisols

• Fluvisols develop on flat or nearly flat ground, on recent alluvial deposits majorly located in the lower regions of rivers like Omo, Awash, Abay and the plains of Akobo and Baro Rivers and the main Ethiopian rift.L Lakes region (main Ethiopian rift) is also characterized by fluvisols
• Highly variable and prized for intensive agriculture because they have ground deposition sites, they are associated with rivers and ground water.

Luvisols

• Luvisols develop in areas where wet and dry seasons occur alternated with with nitosols. Luvisols have good chemical nutrients.However, when luvisols are found on steep slopes (stony) and on flat areas (waterlogged) they are avoided and left for grazing.
• Include Lake Tana area, parts of Northern, Central and Eastern Highlands and Southern lowlands.

6.2.2. Soil Degradation

• Soil degradation is defined as a change in any or all of soil status resulting in a diminished capacity of the ecosystem to provide goods and services.

There are three major types of soil degradation:

i .Physical Degradation:

refers to the deterioration of the physical properties of soil.

• Compaction: densification of soil is caused by the elimination or reduction of structural pores.
• Soil erosion: is a three-phase process consisting of the detachment of individual soil particles, transportation and deposition. In Ethiopia, an estimated average of 42 tons per hectare of soils is eroded annually.

ii. Biological Degradation

• Reduction in soil organic matter content, decline in biomass carbon, and decrease in activity and diversity of soil fauna are ramifications of biological degradation.

iii .Chemical Degradation

• Nutrient depletion is a major cause of chemical degradation.

Causes of soil degradation

Soil degradation may result from natural topographic, climatic factors, deforestation, and over exploitation.Also anthropogenic causes resulting from vegetation, overgrazing, indiscriminate use of agrochemicals and lack of soil conservation practices, and over extraction of ground water

6.2.4. Soil Erosion Control Measures

The aim of soil conservation is to reduce erosion to a level at which the maximum sustainable level of agricultural production, grazing or recreational activity can be obtained from an area of land without unacceptable environmental damage.

We have two major soil erosion control mechanisms:

A. Biological Control measures

• These types of soil erosion control mechanisms include vegetative strips, plantation, and reforestation

B .Physical control measures

• Physical measures are used to control the movement of water and wind over the soil surface. and contour ploughing,
• The major types of physical erosion control measures commonly applied in Ethiopia includes terracing, check dam,. gabion, trenches,

Natural Vegetation of Ethiopia.

6.3.1. Introduction

• Climate the major key regulator of natural vegetation.
• Temperature and precipitation determine their spatial distribution.
• Natural vegetation is vital offering numerous benefits, including shelter, food, fuel, and raw materials.
• Ethiopia hosts species of higher plants of which 10% are endemic.

6.3.2. Major Natural Vegetation Types of Ethiopia

• Taking altitude into consideration it is possible to broadly classify the vegetation belts of Ethiopia into the following five groups namely Afro-alpine and sub-afro alpine Region, Forest Region, Woodland Savannah Region, Steppe Region Semi-desert Region

1 .Afro-alpine and Sub-afro alpine Region

• Ethiopia claims the majority of Afro-alpine habitats in Africa, and in this region the climate is controlled by latitude and altitude. Annual precipitation varies between $800$ and $1,500$ mm.

Vegetation in the Afro-alpine region

• Consists of tussock grasslands, scrub, scattered mosses and lichens while the Sub-afro alpine region is dominated by woodland.

2 .Forest Region

• Forests are found at different elevations, 450 to 3,500m in humid parts and 2,300 to 3,300 m in most arid parts.
• Highlands and Lowland forests including Gallery Forests.

3. Woodland Savannah Region

Found in altitudes (250 to 2,300 m)., Plants in the woodland savannah are known for their xeromorphic characteristics like shading of leaves during the dry season. Vegetation types with intermediate characteristics between savannahs and woodlands are shrublands and woodlands.
Wood and Savanna classification

• Juniper procera dominates
• Acacia woodlands and Mixed deciduous woodlands

4 .Steppe and Semi Desert Regions

*These are temperatures high and rain low regions,Steppe gets a mean annual rainfall of 100 to 550 mm as compared to 50 to 300 mm for the semi desert areas.Xerophytic plants are drought resistant in both regions.

6.3.3. Natural vegetation Degradation

• Due to Ethiopia rapid to overexploitation of the land a decline of forest resources led by clearing of forests for cultivation and timber practices.

  • Overgrazing

  • Expansion of settlements

6.3.2. Natural Vegetation Conservation

• The act of protecting biodiversity with the need of conservation urgent as it is ever-degrading and may including sustainable forest management.

Approaches of biodiversity conservation

• Protection through designation
• Sanctuaries
• National parks
• Restoring destroyed degradation

Wild Life/wild animals in Ethiopia.

6.4.1. Introduction

• Ethiopia possess unique and characteristic fauna with a high level of endemicity. The wildlife concentrations in the country occur in the southern and western part.

Classifications of wildlife in Ethiopia. Generally speaking, the main wild life concentrations in the country occur in the southern and western parts. The wild animals in Ethiopia can be classified into five major group

• Common wild animals or (those that are found locally)

• Rare animals ex Walia lbex

• Game/lowlands ex Giraffe

• Tree animals

Birds

6.4.2. Wildlife Conservation

To prevent destruction of wildlife, a conservation establishment has been put in place namely National Parks.The economic importance of wildlife entails.

• Scientific educations and recreation

• Physical and mental research

• The maintaining of the ecological balance

  • Even though the number and the predominant animals may vary, many of the national parks in Ethiopia have different turnovers of animals. These include buffaloes

6.4.3 Challenges of wildlife conservation in Ethiopia.

• Limited awareness on the importance of wild life
• Illegal wildlife trade
• Overgrazing
• Mining