MDR- Learning Outcomes
week 1
What is the difference between primary and secondary research?
Primary research involves collecting original data directly from sources (e.g., surveys, interviews, experiments).
Secondary research involves analyzing existing data or information that has already been collected by others (e.g., books, articles, reports).
What are the elements of the rhetorical situation and how do they relate to a research assignment?
The rhetorical situation includes:
Topic: The subject being addressed.
Audience: The intended readers or listeners.
Purpose: The goal of the communication (e.g., to inform, persuade, entertain).
Context: The surrounding circumstances influencing the communication (e.g., cultural, historical, social factors).
Writer/Speaker: The individual creating the communication.
In a research assignment, understanding these elements helps tailor your research question, methodology, writing style, and argument to effectively communicate with your target audience.
What is the concept of a writing convention?
A writing convention is an established practice or rule in writing that guides how texts are structured, formatted, and presented within a particular discipline or community. They ensure clarity, consistency, and readability.
What are the 4 investigative writing conventions common across all disciplines?
The four common conventions are:
Clarity: Writing should be easy to understand.
Accuracy: Information presented must be correct and verifiable.
Evidence-based arguments: Claims should be supported by credible evidence.
Ethical considerations: Research and writing must adhere to ethical standards, including proper citation and avoiding plagiarism.
week 2
How do you generate a research topic, including different techniques and the role of journalistic questions?
Techniques for generating topics:
Brainstorming: Listing all ideas related to a general area of interest.
Concept mapping: Visually connecting ideas to explore relationships.
Reading widely: Identifying gaps or controversies in existing literature.
Personal interest: Focusing on subjects you are passionate about.
Journalistic questions (Who, What, When, Where, Why, How): These questions help narrow down broad topics into specific, researchable questions by prompting you to consider different angles and dimensions of a subject.
Why is an initial scan of resources important for generating a research question?
An initial scan helps you:
Understand the scope of existing information on your topic.
Identify common themes, debates, or gaps in the literature.
Determine if your topic is too broad, too narrow, or has already been extensively covered.
Refine your research question to be more original and impactful.
What are the features of a good research question?
A good research question is:
Focused: Specific enough to be answered within the scope of your project.
Researchable: Can be investigated using available resources and methods.
Relevant: Significant and contributes to existing knowledge or addresses a real-world problem.
Concise: Clear and articulated simply.
Complex: Requires more than a simple yes/no answer and encourages analysis and argument.
What are different types of research assignments?
Common types include:
Argumentative essays: Presenting a claim and supporting it with evidence.
Analytic essays: Breaking down a topic to understand its components and relationships.
Reports: Presenting factual information and findings.
Literature reviews: Summarizing and synthesizing existing research on a topic.
Proposals: Outlining a plan for a research project.
What is a research proposal?
A research proposal is a document that outlines a proposed research project, detailing its purpose, methodology, significance, and expected outcomes. It acts as a plan for conducting research.
What are the common elements of a research proposal?
Common elements include:
Title: Clear and descriptive.
Introduction/Background: Provides context and justification for the research.
Research Question(s)/Hypotheses: What the study aims to answer or test.
Literature Review: Summarizes existing research and identifies gaps.
Methodology: Explains how the research will be conducted (e.g., participants, materials, procedures).
Expected Outcomes/Significance: What you anticipate finding and why it matters.
Timeline: A schedule for completing the project.
Budget (if applicable): Resources required.
References: List of sources cited.
week 3
How do primary and secondary research resources differ?
Primary resources are original materials or firsthand accounts (e.g., raw data, diaries, original research articles).
Secondary resources analyze, interpret, or summarize primary resources (e.g., textbooks, review articles, commentaries).
What are the different locations for finding resources?
Academic databases: (e.g., JSTOR, PubMed, Web of Science)
University libraries: Physical and digital collections.
Search engines: (e.g., Google Scholar for academic content, regular Google for general information)
Government websites: For statistics and official reports.
Professional organizations: For industry-specific research.
How do you use a research question to select search terms?
Break down your research question into its key concepts. Each concept typically translates into a search term. Consider synonyms and related terms for comprehensive searching.
What is a Boolean expression and how is it used to modify resource searches?
A Boolean expression uses operators (AND, OR, NOT) to combine or exclude search terms, allowing for more precise search results.
AND: Narrows results, requiring all terms to be present (e.g., "climate change" AND "policy").
OR: Broadens results, requiring at least one term to be present (e.g., "dogs" OR "canines").
NOT: Excludes specific terms (e.g., "apple" NOT "fruit").
What techniques can be used when a search returns too many or too few resources?
Too many resources:
Add more specific keywords.
Use AND to combine terms.
Use NOT to exclude irrelevant terms.
Apply filters (date, publication type, subject).
Too few resources:
Use broader keywords.
Use OR to include synonyms.
Remove unnecessary terms.
Expand your search to more databases or libraries.
What are the criteria for determining if a source is credible?
Currency: How recent is the information?
Relevance: Is the information related to your topic and appropriate for your audience?
Authority: Who created the content and what are their qualifications?
Accuracy: Is the information supported by evidence? Can it be verified?
Purpose: Why was the information created? (To inform, persuade, entertain, sell?)
How do you assess whether a resource is scholarly?
Scholarly resources are typically:
Peer-reviewed: Evaluated by experts in the field before publication.
Written by academics/researchers: Authors usually have advanced degrees and institutional affiliations.
Published in academic journals or university presses: Not popular magazines.
Contain extensive citations/references: Demonstrating thorough research.
Use specialized language: Geared towards an academic audience.
Present original research or critical analysis: Not just general information.
What is the relationship between credible sources and scholarly sources?
All scholarly sources are generally considered credible due to their rigorous review processes. However, not all credible sources are scholarly. For example, a reputable newspaper article or a government report can be credible but not scholarly.
What are the differences between static, syndicated, and dynamic resources, with examples?
Static resources: Content remains constant once published; generally not updated (e.g., a printed book, a PDF of an old article).
Syndicated resources: Content is produced by one source and distributed to multiple platforms or publications (e.g., news articles from the Associated Press republished on various news sites).
Dynamic resources: Content is frequently updated, interactive, and can change over time (e.g., Wikipedia pages, live news blogs, continuously updated databases).
What are the differences between popular magazines, trade magazines/journals, and academic journals?
Popular magazines: (e.g., Time, Cosmopolitan)
Audience: General public.
Purpose: Entertainment, general information.
Authors: Journalists, staff writers.
Language: Accessible, non-technical.
Contents: Short articles, lots of visuals, advertisements.
Trade magazines/journals: (e.g., Restaurant Business, Publisher's Weekly)
Audience: Professionals in a specific industry.
Purpose: Industry news, trends, practical advice.
Authors: Industry professionals, journalists.
Language: Industry-specific jargon.
Contents: Practical articles, product reviews, job listings.
Academic journals: (e.g., Nature, Journal of Applied Psychology)
Audience: Researchers, scholars.
Purpose: Report original research, contribute to scholarly discourse.
Authors: Academics, researchers, experts.
Language: Highly technical, discipline-specific jargon.
Contents: Peer-reviewed research articles, literature reviews, theoretical papers, extensive bibliographies.
week 4
What is rhetorical reading and how does it differ from active/focused reading?
Rhetorical reading involves analyzing a text not just for its content, but also for how it's trying to persuade or inform you, considering the author's purpose, audience, context, and rhetorical strategies. It asks why and how a text works.
Active/focused reading involves engaging with the text to understand its meaning, identify key points, and summarize information. While important, it might not delve as deeply into the persuasive or contextual elements as rhetorical reading.
What elements make up the rhetorical situation of a resource?
The rhetorical situation of a resource includes the author, audience, purpose, context, and message (or text itself). Understanding these helps interpret the resource's function and effectiveness.
What are the steps of rhetorical reading?
Deconstruct: Identify the author, audience, purpose, and context.
Analyze: Examine the text's claims, reasons, evidence, and rhetorical strategies (e.g., appeals to emotion, logic, credibility).
Evaluate: Assess the effectiveness of the text's rhetoric and its potential biases or limitations.
Reflect: Consider your own position relative to the text and its arguments.
What is annotating a source and what influences how you annotate sources?
Annotating a source is the process of actively engaging with a text by writing notes, highlighting, underlining, or commenting directly on it. This helps with comprehension, recall, and critical analysis.
Influences on how you annotate:
Purpose of reading: Are you reading for a summary, an argument, or specific data?
Your prior knowledge: What do you already know about the topic?
Type of text: Scholarly article, textbook, popular source.
Medium: Digital vs. print.
Personal preference: Your preferred method of interaction.
What information should be included in an annotation of a resource?
An annotation should typically include:
Summary: A brief overview of the main arguments or findings.
Evaluation: An assessment of the source's credibility, bias, strengths, and weaknesses.
Relevance: How the source relates to your research question or topic.
Key terms/concepts: Important vocabulary or ideas.
Questions/Critiques: Points for further thought or areas of disagreement.
What is meant by a resource’s claim, reason, and evidence?
Claim: The main argument or point the author is trying to prove or assert.
Reason: A statement that justifies the claim, explaining why the claim is true or valid.
Evidence: Facts, data, examples, statistics, expert testimony, or other observable phenomena used to support the reasons and ultimately the claim.
Example:
Claim: "Cell phone use while driving should be illegal nationwide."
Reason: "Because it significantly increases the risk of accidents."
Evidence: "Studies show that drivers talking on phones are four times more likely to get into crashes , and texting while driving increases crash risk by 23 times ."
What are three different methods of annotating resources and how do they differ?
Highlighting/Underlining: Marking key sentences or phrases for quick identification of important information. Less detailed than marginal notes.
Marginal Notes: Writing comments, questions, summaries, or connections in the margins of the text. Allows for more detailed interaction and analysis.
Summarizing/Paraphrasing: Writing short summaries or rewording sections of the text in your own words, often in a separate notebook or digital document. Ensures deep comprehension and helps with integration later.
What are the main reasons you would use a direct quotation in a secondary research assignment?
To preserve the author's exact wording when:
The original phrasing is particularly eloquent, impactful, or authoritative.
You are analyzing the author's specific language or nuances.
You need to quote statistics, definitions, or controversial statements accurately.
The original text is difficult to paraphrase without losing its meaning.
What are the features of a good paraphrase?
A good paraphrase:
Accurately reflects the original meaning of the source material.
Is written entirely in your own words and sentence structure, not just replacing a few words.
Is approximately the same length or slightly shorter than the original passage.
Includes a citation to the original source.
What distinguishes a good paraphrase from a bad one?
Good Paraphrase: Captures the essence of the original idea, rephrases it completely, and provides a citation.
Bad Paraphrase: Too closely mirrors the original text (e.g., merely replaces a few words, copies sentence structure), or misrepresents the original meaning, and may lack proper citation, leading to plagiarism.
What are the 4 ways of evaluating and tracking resources, and what are the benefits of each?
1. Annotated Bibliographies:
Benefits: Provides a summary and evaluation of each source, helping you decide if it's useful and how it fits into your research.
2. Research Logs/Journals:
Benefits: Records your search strategies, findings, and reflections, helping you track progress and refine your research questions.
3. Citation Management Tools: (e.g., Zotero, Mendeley)
Benefits: Organizes sources, generates citations and bibliographies, prevents lost references, and saves time.
4. Outline:
Benefits: Structuring your argument helps identify where and how different sources will be used, ensuring logical flow and preventing redundancy.
week 5
What is the difference and overlap between copyright and plagiarism?
Copyright: A legal right protecting original works of authorship (e.g., literary, artistic, musical). It grants creators exclusive control over their work's reproduction and distribution for a limited time.
Plagiarism: An ethical offense (and sometimes legal) of presenting someone else's ideas or words as your own without proper attribution. It's about intellectual honesty.
Overlap: Plagiarism can sometimes involve copyright infringement if an unattributed use of copyrighted material exceeds fair use and is reproduced without permission.
What is the fair use doctrine?
The fair use doctrine is a legal principle in copyright law that allows limited use of copyrighted material without permission from the copyright holder for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, or research. It involves a four-factor test: purpose and character of the use, nature of the copyrighted work, amount and substantiality of the portion used, and effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.
What are different types of plagiarism?
Direct Plagiarism: Copying text verbatim without quotation marks or citation.
Self-Plagiarism: Reusing your own previously published work without proper citation or permission.
Mosaic Plagiarism (Patchwork Plagiarism): Mixing copied phrases or sentences with your own words without proper citation.
Accidental Plagiarism: Unintentional plagiarism due to poor citation, paraphrasing, or note-taking.
Source-Based Plagiarism: Citing a source incorrectly, fabricating a source, or misrepresenting information from a source.
How can you recognize examples of plagiarism?
Unattributed direct quotes: Text identical to a source without quotation marks or citation.
Paraphrases that are too close to the original: Changing only a few words while retaining the original sentence structure without citation.
Ideas or concepts from a source presented as original: Using someone else's unique ideas or theories without giving credit.
Missing citations: Any information or idea that is not common knowledge and comes from a source but lacks an in-text citation.
How can incorrect paraphrasing lead to plagiarism?
Incorrect paraphrasing, such as simply changing a few words, rearranging sentences, or maintaining the original sentence structure while substituting synonyms, can lead to plagiarism because it fails to represent the ideas in your own original voice and structure, making it too similar to the source without proper attribution for the language.
What is an annotated bibliography and what features do they typically include?
An animated bibliography is a list of citations for sources, each followed by a brief descriptive and evaluative paragraph (the annotation).
Typical features:
Full citation in a specific style (e.g., APA, MLA).
Summary of the source's main arguments or findings.
Evaluation of the source's credibility, strengths, and weaknesses.
Reflection on the source's relevance to the research project.
What is a literature review, how does it differ from an annotated bibliography, and how is it typically structured, including typical content?
A literature review is an essay or chapter that surveys scholarly articles, books, and other sources relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory. It provides an overview of current knowledge, demonstrating what has already been said on the topic, who the key writers are, what theories exist, and where the gaps in research are.
Difference from an annotated bibliography: An annotated bibliography is a list of sources with individual summaries and evaluations. A literature review is an essay that synthesizes and critically analyzes multiple sources to build an argument or contextualize a research problem, rather than just describing each source separately.
Typical structure and content:
Introduction: Defines the topic, establishes the scope, and states the thesis/purpose of the review.
Body Paragraphs: Organized thematically, chronologically, or methodologically.
Summarizes and synthesizes relevant research findings.
Identifies trends, patterns, and common themes.
Points out controversies, inconsistencies, and gaps in the literature.
Critically evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of existing studies.
Conclusion: Summarizes major findings, reiterates the significance, and suggests directions for future research.
What are the criteria characteristic of a good thesis statement?
A good thesis statement is:
Debatable/Argumentative: Presents a claim that others might dispute.
Focused: Narrows the topic to a specific argument.
Clear and Concise: Easy to understand and to the point.
Engaging: Sparks interest in the reader.
Provides a "roadmap": Indicates the main points that will be covered in the paper.
How do you distinguish between the claim of a thesis and the reasons provided that support the claim?
The claim is the main argument or position you are taking on a topic (the "what").
The reasons are the "why" or "how" that support your claim, often previewed in the thesis or elaborated in topic sentences throughout the paper. They provide the justification for your main argument.
Example: "Online learning environments are effective (claim) because they offer flexibility for diverse student schedules and access to a wider range of resources (reasons)."
When might qualifiers be used and how do you use them in a thesis statement?
Qualifiers are words or phrases that limit the scope, strength, or certainty of a claim. They make a thesis more precise and realistic, acknowledging complexity and preventing overgeneralization.
When to use: When your claim is not absolute, there are exceptions, or you want to acknowledge nuances or specific conditions.
How to use: Integrate them directly into your thesis statement.
Example without qualifier: "Social media causes depression."
Example with qualifier: "Excessive social media use can contribute to symptoms of depression in adolescents, particularly those prone to comparison and seeking external validation."
week 6
What is the difference between reporting and arguing?
Reporting involves presenting factual information, summaries, or descriptions objectively, without taking a stance or trying to persuade the audience.
Arguing involves presenting a claim and supporting it with reasons and evidence to persuade an audience to accept a particular viewpoint.
How do Aristotle's three types of persuasive appeals differ, and when are they most effective?
1. Ethos (Credibility):
Difference: Appeals to the audience's perception of the speaker's/writer's character, expertise, and trustworthiness.
Most effective when: Building trust, establishing authority, or demonstrating shared values with the audience.
2. Pathos (Emotion):
Difference: Appeals to the audience's emotions, values, or sympathies.
Most effective when: Motivating action, creating empathy, or connecting with the audience on a personal level (but should be used ethically).
3. Logos (Logic):
Difference: Appeals to the audience's reason and logic, using facts, data, statistics, and logical reasoning.
Most effective when: Presenting complex information, providing evidence-based arguments, or appealing to an audience that values rational thought.
What is the difference between a claim, a fact, and an opinion, with examples?
Claim: An arguable statement that needs to be supported by evidence (e.g., "Standardized tests do not accurately measure student intelligence.").
Fact: A statement that can be proven true or false through objective evidence (e.g., "The Earth orbits the Sun.").
Opinion: A personal belief or judgment that is not necessarily based on facts and cannot be objectively proven true or false (e.g., "Vanilla ice cream is the best flavor.").
What constitutes evidence and what is its importance in an argumentative essay?
Evidence includes facts, statistics, examples, expert testimony, research findings, anecdotes, and observations that support a claim or reason.
Importance: Evidence is crucial in an argumentative essay because it:
Validates claims: Makes arguments credible and convincing.
Persuades the audience: Provides tangible reasons for readers to accept your viewpoint.
Builds trust: Shows that your argument is well-researched and not just based on personal belief.
Distinguishes from opinion: Elevates an argument beyond mere personal preference.
What is a warrant?
A warrant (in Toulmin argument) is the underlying assumption, belief, or principle that connects the evidence to the claim. It explains why the evidence supports the claim. It's often unstated but crucial for the logic of an argument.
Example: Claim: "You should bring an umbrella." Evidence: "The weather forecast predicts rain." Warrant: (Implicit) "An umbrella will protect you from rain and keep you dry."
What is the role of counter-arguments and rebuttals in a research assignment?
Counter-arguments: Presents opposing viewpoints or objections to your main claim.
Role: Demonstrates your understanding of the complexity of the topic, builds credibility (by showing you've considered different perspectives), and anticipates audience objections.
Rebuttals: Your response to a counter-argument, explaining why it is flawed, less significant, or why your own argument is still stronger.
Role: Strengthens your original claim by addressing and refuting potential objections, thereby reinforcing your persuasive power.
How do you effectively integrate evidence into a research paper?
Introduce evidence: Provide context for the evidence (who said it, where/when was it published).
Present evidence: Use direct quotes, paraphrases, or summaries accurately.
Explain evidence (analysis): Don't just drop a quote; explain how it supports your point and connect it back to your thesis or topic sentence.
Vary integration methods: Mix direct quotes with paraphrases and summaries to maintain flow and demonstrate comprehension.
Cite properly: Always include an in-text citation.
When is the use of direct quotes most appropriate?
When the original wording is particularly significant, eloquent, unique, or authoritative.
When exact wording is crucial for analysis (e.g., analyzing a specific legal text or historical document).
When presenting a definition, statistic, or specific data point that needs to be precisely accurate.
When challenging or critiquing an author's specific words.
When are direct quotes used appropriately vs. inappropriately?
Appropriate: Quoting a specific phrase from a foundational philosopher to support a theoretical point.
Inappropriate: Using a long direct quote when a paraphrase would achieve the same clarity, or quoting common knowledge that doesn't need attribution.
What are common logical fallacies?
Ad Hominem: Attacking the person rather than the argument.
Straw Man: Misrepresenting an opponent's argument to make it easier to attack.
False Dilemma/Dichotomy: Presenting only two options when more exist.
Appeal to Popularity (Ad Populum): Arguing that something is true because many people believe it.
Hasty Generalization: Drawing a broad conclusion from insufficient evidence.
Slippery Slope: Asserting that one event will inevitably lead to a chain of undesirable events.
Red Herring: Introducing an irrelevant topic to distract from the main argument.
Circular Reasoning (Begging the Question): Restating the claim as evidence.
Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc (False Cause): Assuming that because B happened after A, A caused B.
Appeal to Authority (when used improperly): Relying on an authority figure who isn't an expert in the relevant field.
week 9
What are the different organizational patterns of arguments?
Evaluation: Presents an assessment of something (e.g., a policy, product, idea) against a set of criteria.
Comparison and Contrast: Examines similarities and differences between two or more subjects.
Definition: Explores the meaning of a concept, term, or phenomenon, often challenging conventional understanding.
Proposal: Suggests a solution to a problem and argues for its implementation.
Cause and Effect: Explores the reasons why something happened (causes) and what resulted from it (effects).
How do common presentational patterns, strength/weakness of reasons and evidence, and audience position influence effectiveness?
Presentational patterns:
Strong-to-Weak: Starting with your most compelling points; effective for audiences already receptive or neutral.
Weak-to-Strong (Climactic): Building up to your strongest points; effective for skeptical audiences as it allows for groundwork.
Problem-Solution: Presenting the issue then offering the solution.
Chronological/Spatial: For descriptive or narrative arguments.
Strength/Weakness of Reasons and Evidence: Prioritizing stronger evidence early can immediately engage the reader, while saving weak points for later (or omitting them) avoids undermining credibility.
Audience Position: Understanding your audience's preconceptions, biases, and knowledge level is crucial. For a hostile audience, a weak-to-strong approach or acknowledging counter-arguments early can be more effective.
What is the purpose of an introduction?
An introduction aims to:
Hook the reader's attention.
Provide necessary background information.
Establish the context of the essay.
State the thesis statement (main argument).
Briefly outline the paper's scope or main points.
What is the purpose of a conclusion?
A conclusion aims to:
Summarize the main points or arguments.
Reiterate the thesis statement (in different words).
Provide a sense of closure to the essay.
Offer final thoughts, implications, or suggestions for future research.
Leave the reader with a lasting impression or a call to action.
What is framing and how is it used in a paper?
Framing refers to how you present or package your arguments and information to influence the audience's perception and interpretation. It involves selecting certain aspects of a topic and emphasizing them to create a particular perspective.
Usage in a paper: You might frame an issue as a "crisis" to evoke urgency or as an "opportunity" to highlight potential benefits, aligning with your overall persuasive goal.
What is the process of drafting a paper and what tips can lead to a cohesive and well-written paper?
Drafting process:
Outline: Organize your ideas and evidence logically.
First Draft: Focus on getting ideas down; don't worry too much about perfection.
Revision: Rework content, structure, arguments, and evidence.
Editing: Check for clarity, conciseness, grammar, and style.
Proofreading: Final check for typos and minor errors.
Tips for cohesiveness:
Clear thesis: Ensure every part of the paper supports the main argument.
Topic sentences: Each paragraph should start with a sentence that relates back to the thesis.
Transitions: Use transition words and phrases to connect ideas between sentences and paragraphs smoothly.
Repetition of key terms: Strategically repeat important terms to maintain focus.
Logical organization: Arrange sections and paragraphs in a flow that makes sense to the reader.
What is the IMRaD layout of scientific reports?
IMRaD is a common organizational structure for scientific research papers, standing for:
Introduction: Provides background, literature review, and states the research question/hypothesis.
Methods: Describes how the study was conducted (participants, materials, procedures) in detail for replication.
Results: Presents the findings of the study, usually with data, tables, and figures, without interpretation.
and
Discussion: Interprets the results, explains their significance, discusses limitations, and suggests future research.
week 10
What are the fundamental principles of in-text citations, including author-date format?
Purpose: To give credit to original sources, avoid plagiarism, and allow readers to locate the full source in the reference list.
Author-Date Format (e.g., APA): Involves placing the author's last name and the year of publication in parentheses within the text whenever you refer to, summarize, paraphrase, or directly quote another source.
Placement: Citations are typically placed at the end of a sentence or immediately after the information to which they refer.
How do you distinguish between different types of in-text citations?
Parenthetical citation: The author's name and year (and page number for direct quotes) appear in parentheses (e.g., ).
Narrative citation: The author's name is incorporated into the sentence, followed by the year in parentheses (e.g., "Smith argued that…").
How do you apply APA style in-text citations correctly in different writing scenarios?
Single author: (Author, Year) or Author (Year)
Example: , or Johnson found…
Two authors: (Author & Author, Year) or Author and Author (Year)
Example: \left({\text{Miller & Lee, 2019}} \right), or Miller and Lee suggested…
Three or more authors: (First Author et al., Year) or First Author et al. (Year)
Example: , or Davis et al. reported…
Group author: (Organization Name, Year) or Organization Name (Year)
Example: .
No author: (Title of Work, Year) or Title of Work (Year)
Example: .
For paraphrases/summaries: Include author and year.
For direct quotations: Include author, year, and specific page number or paragraph number (for sources without page numbers).
What is the difference in in-text citation styles for short quotations and block quotations?
Short quotations (under 40 words): Integrated into the main text, enclosed in double quotation marks, with an in-text citation including page number.
Example: "Research shows improved outcomes" .
Block quotations (40 words or more): Start on a new line, indented 0.5 inches from the left margin, without quotation marks. The parenthetical citation comes after the final punctuation of the block quote.
How do you apply APA style guidelines to format a title page, reference page, and body pages of a student paper?
Title Page:
Paper title (bolded, centered).
Author's name.
Institutional affiliation.
Course number and name.
Instructor's name.
Due date.
Page number (top right corner, header).
Body Pages:
Double-spaced, 1-inch margins on all sides.
Times New Roman 12pt or Arial 11pt font.
Running head (optional for student papers, check specific requirements).
Page number (top right corner, header).
Headings and subheadings for organization.
Reference Page:
Starts on a new page, titled "References" (bolded, centered).
Alphabetical order by the first author's last name.
Double-spaced.
Hanging indent for each entry (first line flush left, subsequent lines indented 0.5 inches).
What are APA rules for use of abbreviations in text?
Introduce an abbreviation by spelling out the full term the first time it appears, followed by the abbreviation in parentheses. After that, use only the abbreviation.
Example: "The World Health Organization released a report. The WHO recommends…"
Avoid abbreviations in the title or abstract unless they are standard and widely understood.
What are APA rules for use of numbers in text?
Use words for numbers zero through nine that do not represent precise measurements.
Example: "There were seven participants."
Use numerals for numbers 10 and above.
Example: "A group of 15 students."
Use numerals for all numbers representing precise measurements, statistics, or ages.
Example: "0.5 mm," "5%," "3-year-olds."
Always use numerals for numbers in a series, even if some are below 10.
Example: "1, 5, and 12 experiments."
Never start a sentence with a numeral; always spell it out or rephrase the sentence.
How do you identify and correct biased language?
Identify: Look for language that perpetuates stereotypes, discriminates against groups, demonstrates unwarranted assumptions, or uses labels that are non-inclusive (e.g., gendered terms, ableist language).
Correct:
Be specific: Use exact terms instead of generalizations (e.g., "people with autism" instead of "autistics").
Use person-first language: Emphasize the person, not the condition (e.g., "a woman with a disability" instead of "a disabled woman").
Use gender-neutral language: Avoid "he/she" or generic "he" by using plural nouns, rephrasing, or "they/them" (e.g., "researchers" instead of "spokesmen").
Be sensitive to labels: Use current, respectful terminology rather than outdated or offensive terms.
Avoid implying causality where none exists: "Students dropping out" implies personal failure rather than contextual factors.
What are the different elements of a resource that are used in APA reference list entries for different types of resources?
Common elements include:
Author(s)
Date of publication
Title of the work (article, chapter, book, report)
Title of the larger work (journal, book title if it's a chapter)
Edition, Volume, Issue numbers (for journals)
Page range (for articles, chapters)
Publisher (for books)
DOI (Digital Object Identifier) or URL (for online resources)
Why is it important to provide accurate reference entry information?
Credibility: Demonstrates thorough research and academic integrity.
Avoids plagiarism: Gives credit where it's due.
Verifiability: Allows readers to locate and consult the original sources themselves.
Research trail: Helps other researchers build upon your work by finding relevant literature.
week 11
Why is a basic understanding of primary research important?
Enhances critical evaluation skills for all research.
Allows you to conduct original investigations when secondary data is insufficient.
Deepens understanding of how knowledge is generated in disciplines.
Equips you to interpret and apply research findings in real-world contexts.
What are the steps in the primary research process?
Define the research problem/question: What do you want to investigate?
Conduct a literature review: Understand existing knowledge and identify gaps.
Formulate hypothesis/research objectives: What do you expect to find or aim to achieve?
Design the study: Choose a research design (e.g., experimental, survey).
Select participants/sample: Who will be included in the study?
Collect data: Administer surveys, conduct interviews, perform experiments.
Analyze data: Use statistical or qualitative methods to interpret findings.
Draw conclusions and report findings: Answer the research question, discuss implications.
What is the role of a hypothesis in a research study?
A hypothesis is a testable statement predicting a relationship between variables or an expected outcome of a study. It provides a specific direction for the research and is either supported or refuted by the evidence collected.
Define 'variables' and distinguish between independent and dependent variables in an example.
Variables are characteristics, numbers, or quantities that can be measured or counted.
Independent Variable (IV): The variable that is manipulated or changed by the researcher. It is independent of other variables in the study.
Dependent Variable (DV): The variable that is measured or observed and is expected to depend on the changes in the independent variable.
Example: In a study on different teaching methods causing changes in test scores:
IV: The type of teaching method used (e.g., lecture, group work, online modules).
DV: The students' test scores.
What are the main differences between quantitative and qualitative research, and what is mixed-methods research?
Quantitative Research:
Focus: Measuring and testing relationships, generalizing findings.
Data: Numerical (statistics, graphs, charts).
Methods: Experiments, surveys with closed-ended questions.
Analysis: Statistical.
Goal: Objectivity, measurement, hypothesis testing.
Qualitative Research:
Focus: Exploring meaning, understanding experiences, gaining in-depth insights.
Data: Non-numerical (interviews, observations, textual analysis).
Methods: Interviews, focus groups, case studies, ethnography.
Analysis: Thematic, interpretive.
Goal: Subjectivity, rich description, understanding context.
Mixed-Methods Research: Combines both quantitative and qualitative approaches within a single study to gain a more comprehensive understanding of a research problem.
How do qualitative and quantitative research questions differ?
Quantitative research questions: Typically ask about relationships between variables, comparisons, or effects, often using words like "how much," "how many," "what is the relationship," and "to what extent." (e.g., "What is the effect of exercise frequency on student GPA?")
Qualitative research questions: Typically explore experiences, meanings, processes, or perceptions, often using words like "how," "what," "why," "explore," "understand," "describe." (e.g., "How do students perceive the impact of exercise on their academic performance?")
What are the main differences between experimental, quasi-experimental, and non-experimental/descriptive research designs?
Experimental Design:
Key feature: Random assignment of participants to different groups (e.g., treatment vs. control).
Manipulation: Researcher directly manipulates the independent variable.
Causality: Allows for strong causal statements due to control and random assignment.
Quasi-Experimental Design:
Key feature: No random assignment of participants (groups are pre-existing).
Manipulation: Researcher still manipulates the independent variable.
Causality: Can suggest causation, but with less certainty than true experiments due to lack of random assignment and potential confounding variables.
Non-Experimental/Descriptive Design:
Key feature: No manipulation of an independent variable; observes and describes phenomena as they naturally occur.
Causality: Cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Purpose: To describe characteristics, explore associations, or identify trends.
What are the key features of an experimental design, including manipulation of the independent variable(s) and random assignment?
Manipulation of IV: The researcher actively changes or controls the independent variable across different groups (e.g., giving one group a new drug and another a placebo).
Random assignment: Participants are randomly assigned to either the experimental group(s) or control group(s). This ensures that groups are equivalent at the start of the study, minimizing the influence of confounding variables.
Control group: A group that does not receive the treatment or manipulation, serving as a baseline for comparison.
Measurement of DV: The outcome variable is measured for all groups.
How does random assignment relate to internal validity of research?
Internal validity refers to the extent to which a study establishes a trustworthy cause-and-effect relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
Random assignment enhances internal validity by distributing pre-existing differences (confounding variables) among participants evenly across all groups. This means that any observed differences in the dependent variable between groups are more likely due to the independent variable manipulation rather than other factors, thus strengthening the causal inference.
How are groups formed in quasi-experimental research?
In quasi-experimental research, groups are typically pre-existing or naturally formed (e.g., intact classrooms, different hospitals, people with a specific condition). Participants are not randomly assigned to these groups, which is the main distinction from true experimental designs.
Why can causal statements not be made in non-experimental/descriptive research?
Causal statements cannot be made because non-experimental designs lack two critical components:
Manipulation of an independent variable: Researchers only observe, not intervene.
Random assignment: Groups are not equivalent, meaning other factors could be influencing the outcomes.
Without these, it's impossible to rule out alternative explanations for observed relationships, meaning correlation does not imply causation.
What are sub-types of non-experimental research designs?
Survey design: Collects data from a sample to describe the characteristics of a population (e.g., opinions, behaviors).
Comparative non-experimental design: Compares two or more pre-existing groups on some variable without manipulating any independent variable (e.g., comparing academic performance of students from different socio-economic backgrounds).
Correlational design: Examines the statistical relationship (association) between two or more variables, but does not imply causation (e.g., the relationship between hours studied and test scores).
How do you interpret a correlation co-efficient?
A correlation coefficient () is a statistical measure that indicates the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables. It ranges from to .
Direction:
Positive (+$ -1.00-1.00-1.0+1.000$$ means no linear relationship.
What are Indigenous research methods that encourage holistic conceptualization of research variables?
Indigenous research methods often emphasize relationality, reciprocity, and a holistic view, rejecting reductionist approaches.
These methods include techniques like narrative inquiry, storytelling, sharing circles, Elder guidance, and community-based participatory research, which value interconnectedness of social, cultural, spiritual, and environmental factors.
What are key features of Indigenous research methodology?
Respect: For Indigenous knowledge systems, cultures, and self-determination.
Relevance: Research should directly benefit Indigenous communities.
Reciprocity: A two-way process of learning and sharing; quid pro quo.
Relationality: Focus on interconnectedness—of people, land, spirits, and ancestors.
Responsibility: Researchers are accountable to the communities involved.
Contextualization: Acknowledging the historical, social, and political context of Indigenous peoples.
Community-driven: Research initiated and controlled by Indigenous communities.
How can the medicine wheel be used to conceptualize the interrelationships between research elements?
The Medicine Wheel is an ancient Indigenous symbol representing holistic well-being and interconnectedness, often divided into four quadrants (e.g., physical, mental, emotional, spiritual; or east, south, west, north).
Conceptualization in research: It can guide research by ensuring all aspects of a phenomenon are considered and integrated. For example:
Each quadrant could represent a different research element (e.g., research question, methodology, ethics, dissemination).
It encourages researchers to consider the physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual implications of their work, ensuring balance and a holistic approach to understanding complex issues.
It prompts reflection on how various factors interconnect and influence each other within the research process and its outcomes.
week 12
What are the key principles and purposes of observational research, and what are its advantages and disadvantages?
Principles: Systematic, objective, focused on natural settings, non-interventional.
Purposes: To describe behaviors, phenomena, or interactions in their natural environment; to identify patterns; to generate hypotheses.
Advantages:
Captures behavior in natural, authentic settings.
Can reveal insights that surveys or interviews might miss.
Useful for studying behaviors participants might not accurately report.
Non-intrusive in some forms.
Disadvantages:
Observer bias can influence interpretation.
Ethical concerns about privacy and informed consent.
Time-consuming and labor-intensive.
Difficult to generalize findings.
Researcher presence can alter behavior (Hawthorne effect).
What factors must a researcher consider when using the observational data collection method?
Type of observation: Participant vs. non-participant, disclosed vs. undisclosed.
Setting: Naturalistic vs. structured.
Duration and frequency: How long and how often to observe.
What to observe: Defining specific behaviors or events.
Recording methods: Checklists, narrative descriptions, field notes, video/audio recordings.
Minimizing bias: Training observers, using multiple observers, inter-rater reliability.
Ethical considerations: Privacy, consent, anonymity.
What are three different systems that can be used to record observational data?
Narrative Records: Detailed, ongoing written accounts of observed behaviors and contexts (e.g., field notes, running records).
Checklists/Rating Scales: Pre-defined lists of behaviors or characteristics to be marked as present/absent or rated on a continuum (e.g., frequency of a specific action).
Event Sampling/Time Sampling:
Event Sampling: Recording specific behaviors or events whenever they occur.
Time Sampling: Recording behaviors at pre-determined intervals or points in time.
Describe the interview method of data collection, including characteristics, typical number of participants, and methods.
Interview method: A qualitative data collection technique involving a direct interaction between a researcher and one or more participants to gather in-depth information about their experiences, perceptions, opinions, or beliefs.
Characteristics:
Interactive, allowing for clarification and follow-up.
Flexible, enabling exploration of unexpected themes.
Rich, detailed data collection.
Typical number of participants: Usually relatively small (e.g., 5-30 for in-depth qualitative studies) to allow for depth.
Methods:
Structured interviews: Uses a strict set of pre-determined questions.
Semi-structured interviews: Uses a guide of main questions but allows for flexibility and follow-up probes.
Unstructured interviews: Open-ended, conversational, allowing topics to emerge naturally.
Focus groups: Interviews conducted with a small group (e.g., 6-10) to explore collective opinions and interactions.
What are the circumstances under which interviews are a good choice for data collection?
When in-depth understanding of individual experiences, perspectives, or motivations is needed.
When exploring complex or sensitive topics.
When gathering data from specific groups that might not respond to surveys.
When seeking context or explanation for quantitative findings.
When developing theories or generating hypotheses.
What factors must be considered to effectively use the interview method?
Selecting appropriate interviewees: Ensuring participants have relevant experiences or knowledge.
How interviews will be performed: In-person, phone, video call.
Ideal length: Often 30-90 minutes, depending on the depth required.
Process of constructing interview guides: Developing clear, open-ended questions that align with research objectives.
Nature of questions: Avoiding leading questions, using neutral language, probing for detail.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of interviews as a data collection method?
Advantages:
Yields rich, in-depth, nuanced data.
Allows for flexibility and probing.
High response rates compared to surveys for specific populations.
Clarification of questions is possible.
Disadvantages:
Time-consuming and costly.
Potential for interviewer bias.
Data analysis can be complex.
Limited generalizability due to small sample sizes.
Relies on participant's recall and willingness to share.
What are the key principles and purposes of surveys?
Principles: Systematic collection of data from a sample of individuals; standardized questions; representative sampling to allow for generalization.
Purposes:
To describe the characteristics of a large population.
To measure attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and demographics.
To identify relationships between variables.
To generalize findings from a sample to a larger population.
What factors are commonly considered when determining whether a survey is right for a research project?
Research question: Can it be answered with quantitative, standardized data?
Population size: Is the target population large enough to warrant a survey for generalizability?
Resources: Is there enough time and budget for survey development, distribution, and analysis?
Type of information needed: Are you looking for breadth (many participants) rather than depth (detailed accounts)?
Feasibility: Can you reach a representative sample of your population?
What factors must be considered to effectively use the survey method?
Selecting appropriate survey respondents: Ensuring they belong to the target population.
Using a sample that is representative of the population: Employing probability sampling (e.g., random sampling) for generalizability.
Developing the correct number and type of questions: Clear, concise, unambiguous, and directly addressing research questions (e.g., closed-ended for quantitative analysis, carefully used open-ended for qualitative insights).
Piloting the survey: Testing it with a small group before full deployment.
How do survey distribution and questions impact validity, and how can response rates be improved?
Impact on Validity:
Distribution: Biased distribution methods (e.g., only online) can lead to a non-representative sample, threatening external validity (generalizability).
Questions: Poorly worded, ambiguous, leading, or double-barreled questions can introduce measurement error, threatening construct validity (do questions actually measure what they intend to?).
Improving Response Rates:
Clear purpose: Explain the survey's importance.
Incentives: Offer small rewards.
Personalization: Address respondents by name.
Reminders: Send follow-up emails/messages.
Ease of completion: Keep it short, mobile-friendly.
Confidentiality/Anonymity: Assure participants their data is protected.
Professional appearance: Well-designed, branded surveys.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of the survey method?
Advantages:
Efficient for collecting data from large populations.
Can be cost-effective and time-efficient.
Easy to quantify and statistically analyze data.
Can achieve high generalizability if sampling is good.
Can cover a wide range of topics.
Disadvantages:
Lack of depth compared to interviews.
Reliance on self-report (potential for social desirability bias).
Response bias (only certain types of people respond).
Difficulty with complex or sensitive topics.
Fixed questions may not capture nuances.
Define two types of reliability, construct validity, and triangulation.
Reliability: The consistency and stability of a measure; if a measurement is repeated, it should yield the same results.
Test-retest reliability: Administering the same test to the same group at different times to see consistency.
Inter-rater reliability: Consistency of ratings or observations between different observers/judges.
Construct Validity: The extent to which a measure accurately assesses the theoretical construct it is designed to measure (e.g., does an IQ test truly measure intelligence?).
Triangulation: The use of multiple methods, data sources, theories, or investigators to cross-check and corroborate research findings. It strengthens the credibility and validity of research.
What are the fundamental principles and guidelines governing ethical human research, such as respect for persons, respect for welfare, and justice?
Respect for Persons:
Acknowledging participants' autonomy and right to make their own decisions.
Requires informed consent, protecting vulnerable populations.
Respect for Welfare:
Protecting participants from harm and promoting their well-being.
Maximizing benefits and minimizing risks.
Justice:
Fair distribution of the benefits and burdens of research.
Equitable selection of participants, ensuring no group is unfairly exploited or excluded.
These principles ensure research is conducted morally and responsibly.
What are different types of research ethics considerations?
Informed Consent: Participants voluntarily agree to participate after being fully informed of the study's purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits.
Confidentiality: Protecting the identity of participants and their personal information from being directly linked to their responses.
Privacy: Safeguarding participants' control over their personal information and physical space during research.
Minimizing Risks: Designing research to reduce potential psychological, physical, social, or emotional harm.
Fairness and Equity: Ensuring that the selection of participants and the distribution of research benefits and burdens are just.
Data Security: Protecting collected data from unauthorized access or breaches.
What are the different types of harm researchers must consider?
Physical harm: Injury, pain, illness.
Psychological harm: Stress, anxiety, embarrassment, trauma, emotional distress.
Social harm: Damage to reputation, social stigma, loss of relationships.
Economic harm: Financial loss, unemployment.
Legal harm: Criminal prosecution, civil penalties.
Define the concept of informed consent in research and its significance in protecting participants' autonomy and rights.
Informed consent: A process where prospective research participants are given complete information about a study (purpose, procedures, risks, benefits, alternatives, right to withdraw) and then voluntarily agree to participate without coercion.
Significance: It is fundamental to protecting participants' autonomy (their right to self-determination and to make their own choices) and rights (including privacy and safety). It ensures that participation is voluntary and based on sufficient understanding.
Discuss the role of Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) and ethics committees in evaluating and overseeing research involving human participants.
Role: IRBs (in the US) or ethics committees (globally) are independent administrative bodies responsible for reviewing and approving all research involving human participants.
Functions:
Risk-benefit analysis: Ensure risks are minimized and outweighed by potential benefits.
Informed consent review: Verify consent forms are clear and comprehensive.
Privacy and confidentiality: Assess measures to protect participant data.
Participant selection review: Ensure fairness and ethical inclusion/exclusion.
Ongoing oversight: Monitor approved studies for compliance with ethical guidelines throughout their duration.
What are the exceptions to informed consent in research?
Use of data/research in the public domain: When data is publicly available and identifiable information is not involved (e.g., publicly posted social media content).
General waiver of consent/secondary use of data/biological material: Approved by an IRB under specific conditions where:
The research poses minimal risk to participants.
The waiver will not adversely affect the rights and welfare of participants.
The research could not practically be carried out without the waiver.
When appropriate, participants will be provided with additional pertinent information after participation.
This often applies to using existing de-identified data (archival data) or anonymized biological samples for secondary analysis.